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AN ASSESSMENT OF CROP-RAIDING BY MACACA OCHREATA BRUNNESCENS IN BUTON, SOUTHEAST SULAWESI: FARMERS’ PERCEPTIONS, REALITY AND THE IMPACT ON PRIMATE BEHAVIOUR AND CONSERVATION            

 Aim

To assess the levels of damage to crops by macaques, compare this to farmers perceptions of damage levels and investigate methods of deterrence. 

Objectives 

Introduction 

This study will assess the degree to which the booted Sulawesi macaque poses a threat to farmers’ livelihoods and, in turn, how this affects farmers’ perceptions of a threatened species. Human attitudes directly affect the conservation of this sub-species and this project will initially determine attitudes and ultimately create a suitable management strategy for the primates. 

The human perception of primates is often one of contradiction, typified by extremes. Whilst for many cultures primates are a symbol of religion and are sacred e.g. Hindus of India, in others such as Japan, they are mythical creatures viewed as cunning and devious. However for most of the world’s subsistence and plantation farmers living in close proximity to these animals, they are a significant crop pest. In many cultures these views overlap resulting in both a love and loathing of them such that they may be worshipped at a temple but shot on the field next door. Cultural tolerance alone is protecting many species of primate, but as this begins to wane in the face of increasing human populations, demographic movements and habitat destruction, it is vital that the conflict that exists be understood. Conservation depends on local perceptions, economy and social factors and it is within these limitations that it must work and against this background that this project has been set.

 

Human-wildlife conflict 

Human-wildlife conflict is of increasing concern in all parts of the world and has been the focus of recent conservation efforts (see for example Bell 1984; Else and Lee 1986; Hill 1998, Hoare 2000, Infield 1988, Naughton Treves 1998; Newmark et al, 1994). (see for example Bell 1984; Else and Lee 1986; Hill 1998; Hoare 2000; Infield 1988; Naughton Treves 1998; Newmark et al. 1994). With increasing human populations, especially in the developing world, more human and wildlife populations are coming into direct competition (Eudey 1986; Strum 1987a, b, 1994; Tchamba 1996). 

In subsistence agricultural societies the nuisance value of wildlife, from crop damage and livestock depredation, is often pronounced in people’s minds (Ranjitsinh 1984). People feel threatened by wildlife, both in terms of crop loss and personal safety (Eley and Else 1984; Hill 1999; Malic and Johnson 1994; Priston 2001). Such losses can be enormous, both in direct economic terms and through indirect costs on time and energy devoted to protection and re-planting after damage (Hill 1998, 1999), as well as the cost of potential conflicts between activities and less time to complete other work. (Lee and Priston submitted). Estimates of damage reach 90% in some areas (Mishra 1984), representing an annual value of $500 per farmer which, though of little national importance, causes the individual farmer much suffering (Barnes 1996).  

 

Primates as Pests 

Primates dominate amongst pests that damage crops, particularly around African and Asian reserves, being responsible for over 70% of the damage events and 50% of the area damaged (Naughton Treves 1998). Because of their intelligence, opportunism, adaptability and manipulative abilities some species can easily turn to crop foraging and make formidable crop-raiders. The human and non-human primate niches overlap extensively making competition much higher between the two and posing many management problems (Strum 1987a). 

One fundamental factor is the cultural attitude of people towards primates. Levels of tolerance, acceptance and even demand for interactions vary with cultural context (Biquand et al. 1992; Gautier and Biquand 1994). For Hindus the monkey is sacred and in parts of Northern India, Indonesia and other areas, they are worshipped, protected and provisioned by the villagers. Whilst showing remarkable tolerance, people are understandably still reluctant to share their crops (Eudey 1994; Malic and Johnson 1994; Southwick et al. 1961a, b; Strum and Southwick 1986). 

Traditional methods to prevent primate crop-raiding have limited success. The dexterity, deceptive skills, and intelligence of some primates make containment and control costly, inefficient and ultimately ineffective (Maples et al. 1976; Strum 1986, 1987a, 1994). 

Indonesia has the fifth largest human population in the world (Atmosoedarjo et al. 1984) and nowhere is there a greater variety and diversity of primates than in South and Southeast Asia (Roonwal and Mohnot 1977). Sulawesi itself is one of the most distinctive islands with 127 indigenous mammals, 79 of which are endemic (Whitten et al. 1988). Legal protection of species and forested land is poor. As with almost every other primate species, the Sulawesi macaques are facing loss of habitat due to subsistence farming and logging, as well as subsistence hunting and “pest” control measures in some areas (O'Brien and Kinnaird 1997; Rosenbaum et al. 1998). Macaques are adaptable and opportunistic and thus can cope with these problems better than some species (Richard et al. 1989), but even within Sulawesi population declines of 75% have been witnessed (Macaca nigra) (Rosenbaum et al. 1998). An understanding of their foraging behaviour is essential to the formation of a suitable management strategy.

 

Why study attitudes? 

Information about the attitudes and perceptions of villagers towards the pest-monkeys is a prerequisite to designing optimal and effective management schemes (Else and Lee 1986; Gillingham and Lee 1999; Parry and Campbell 1992; Pirta et al. 1997). In the past attempts to deal with problems have run into severe difficulties due to lack of local consultation (Strum 1987a).  

For the farmers, the extent of economic loss due to primates may be less important than the belief that monkeys are responsible. As a result primate populations may be persecuted. Also if they believe primates to be responsible then they may not take action against other animals which could be causing significant damage, therefore losing even more of their crop. It is necessary to investigate attitudes towards primate pests, as well as the reality of their raiding actions to determine the extent of any mismatch between these perceptions and reality.

 

Conclusion 

Local perceptions of this endangered sub-species could pose a major threat to its conservation. This study will assess the nature of the attitudes held by local farmers and work to create a suitable and appropriate management scheme for pest primates. It will also work to alter any negative perceptions through local education programmes already in place and by working closely with the local community elders and forest rangers. Reports will be produced for both local and national government. 

These primates are currently classified as vulnerable (IUCN). However no detailed surveys have been carried out on the island. With increasing human pressure on land and arrival of transmigrants from other islands, it is likely that human-macaque conflict will only increase. Action must be taken now to pre-empt the inevitable decline of this species. One approach is to assess the extent of the problem monkeys pose to the local communities and to assess human attitudes in response. By working within the context of attitudes and perceptions, and by providing effective defensive strategies, it is hoped that conflict can be minimised.

 

Methods

 

Initial Results

148 Interviews have been conducted with farmers in the 4 villages. Approximately 25% of these have been with Hindu farmers whilst the rest are with Muslim farmers. Initial examination of the results (which are yet to be analysed properly) suggests that Hindu farmers experience less crop loss from Primates, owing to the fact that most are wet-rice farmers (a crop primates do not raid frequently). Hence Hindu farmers’ perceptions of the macaque are generally more positive than Muslim farmers. However farmers who had had any experience with primates raiding farms in the past or who also owned plantation crops e.g. cocoa were more negative about them.

The worst pests reported were pigs, monkeys and rats. The most successful deterrent methods cited were guarding the farm and shouting, chasing or throwing stones. Though farmers complained that this meant they had to stay in their farms all day and were unable to do other activities and earn money elsewhere. There were also instances of children being unable to attend school because they had to guard the farms. There was confusion over the law surrounding what methods of deterrence are permitted e.g. traps and poison etc, but these were generally thought to be unsuccessful methods. 2 Farmers reported altering their farming practices and growing different plants (chilli and sawi vegetables) to prevent monkey and pig raids. This requires more investigation and might possibly prove to be a useful solution to the pest problem.

72 farms were mapped and surveyed for primate damage. Damage levels were greater in farms closer to the forest edge and within farms damage was generally greater closer to the fence. Crops most heavily damaged were sweet potato, banana and corn; though this may be affected by what crops are actually available at the time.

Focal farm surveys have demonstrated that these crops are indeed raided more frequently than others and chasing monkeys seems to be the most successful method of preventing damage, though even this is not very successful as the primates are not easily scared away.

Further analysis is required to assess the extent of differences between farmers’ perceptions of raiding and the reality. 

Final Report:

The above report constitutes summary of progress towards completion of a thesis entitled  An assessment of crop-raiding by Macaca ochreata brunnescens in Buton, Southeast Sulawesi: farmers’ perceptions, reality and the impact on primate behaviour and conservation which will be produced by Nancy Priston, University of Cambridge by September 2004. 

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