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There
are few data on endangered Buton macaque, Macaca
ochreata brunnescens. Large-scale habitat destruction on Buton through
logging and farming has reduced potential habitat for these medium sized
mammals. Data on key food resources and habitat features is essential to allow
recommendations of areas suitable for conserving macaques. In addition, macaques
are seed dispersers, which is important for forest regeneration. Knowledge of
food resources is essential in understanding habitat and food resource needs of
these macaques for their continued survival as an endemic species of Sulawesi.
The macaques often come into conflict with local farmers through the damage they
cause to crops. This can result in the macaques being trapped or poisoned, and
the farmers loosing a potentially significant proportion of their crops.
Information on both the actual severity of this problem and the perceptions of
local farmers and people is required to look at ways to reduce this conflict.
Little is also known of the behaviour and social structure of Buton macques.
This project aims to increase our knowledge of these areas.
§
Gather
additional information on the behavioural ecology of the Buton macaque,
including social structure & dominance relations
§
Estimate
relative numbers of macaque units in study areas
§
Compare the
use of habitat in crop and forest areas, and compare the behaviour of macaques
in these habitats
§
Sample food
items used by macaques for type, amount eaten
§
Distinguish
the different vocalizations of the macaques, and relate them to their
behavioural function
§
Investigate
the frequency with which macaques raid crops, which crops are taken, and the
influence of human activity in fields as a deterrent
§
Compare the
perceptions of farmers and local people with the severity of actual crop raiding
Behavioural
data has been collected on three groups of macaques, two at Kaweli and one at
Kakanauwe. The forest at Kaweli is subject to selective logging and is boarded
by farms, whereas that at Kakenauwe is more intact. Habitat structure was
recorded at both sites using 10x 10m quadrats. The macaques at Kaweli crop raid
and their behaviour was recorded both in the forest and when crop raiding. The
macaques were located, often at their sleeping tree and followed
opportunistically for as long as possible.
General behaviours were recorded using a instantaneous scan sampling, and
specific social behaviours were recorded using continuous focal sampling. This
provided information on the daily budget for feeding, foraging, locomotion,
resting, social and non-social events of the different the age-sex classes, and
will enable the dominance hierarchies to be determined.
Feeding
behaviour
All
instances of feeding were recorded, with the type of food being eaten and the
amount of time spent feeding on it being noted. This will enable the relative
proportions of the various foods in the diet to be calculated. Botanical voucher
specimens were taken for the various plant foods to enable their identification.
Vocalizations
Every 15
minutes the behaviour of the majority of the group was noted. Vocalizations were
recorded for three minutes in each 15 minute period using a Sennheiser
directional microphone connected to a minidisc portable recorder. Recorded calls
were classified and the behavioural response to that call was noted.
Preliminary
abundance estimates
Three
km transects were walked repeatedly at both the Kakenauwe and La Pago grids. The
number of macaques seen and their perpendicular distance from the transect line
were noted. From this data the maximum reliable sighting distance can be
calculated, and the data transformed into preliminary abundance estimates for
both sites.
Habitat
structure quadrates
In
order to compare the behaviour and range use of the troops at Kaweli and
Kakaenauwe habitat structure was sampled using at total of 183 10 x 10m quadrats
spaced at 100m intervals through out the trail grids. Within each quadrat the
percentage vegetation cover at <1m, 1-5m, 5-20m, >20m was recorded using
the Braun-Blonquet scale where:
1
= 0-5%
2
= 5-25%
3
= 25-50%
4
= 50-75%
5
= 75-100%
Percentage
sky cover was also recorded using the same scale. The circumference of all trees
with a CBH > 30cm was recorded, as was the height of the tallest tree in the
quadrat.
Crop
raiding census
Watches
have been carried out on 7 farms in Kaweli, from 6:30am until 4:30pm for eight
weeks. This allows the average frequency of crop raids, to identify any temporal
or spatial patterns, the effect of human activity in the farms, which crops are
raided and whether there macaques have a preference for particular crops and to
be assessed. When macaques raided, detailed observations were made of the
animals’ behaviour, the crops eaten and the amount. The farms were mapped,
giving information of their approximate area, the crops grown, monkey deterrent
devices present and the adjoining land use. This information can be used to
assess factors which effect the frequency of crop raiding by macaques.
Perceptions
and actual severity of crop raiding
148
semi-structured interviews were carried out with with local farmers (open and
fixed response questions) in 4 villages (Kawelli, La Bundo Bundo, Wakangka and
Wakalambe). These were split between 25% Hindu, and 75% Muslim farmers. This is
important, since Hindu farmers are often wet-rice farmers (a crop primates do
not raid frequently), in contrast to Muslim farmers who grow a range of crops.
Estimates of amount of primate crop damage were made in 72 farms using random
stratified transect sampling in fields following interviews (as well as general
farm measurements such as area, distance from forest, crop types etc). These
farms were also mapped.
Results
given here are preliminary, further data entry and subsequent analysis pending.
Behavioural
data
Data were
collected over 11 weeks for the groups at Kaweli, and five weeks at Kakenauwe.
The active period begins at approximately 5:30am, and ends at approximately 5pm
when the macaques enter their sleeping tree for the night. There were
differences in the activity budgets for the Kaweli and Kakenuawe groups, with
those at Kakenauwe spending more time locomoting and less time resting and
grooming. These differences may be related to the greater degree of habituation
of the Kaweli macaques, or the fact that for the majority of the study the main
group at Kaweli had no adult male – it being the adult male that co-ordinates
groop movement in this species.
Feeding behaviour
Approximately
35 plant foods have been observes to be eaten by Buton macaques. Figs Ficus
sp. and Pangi, Pangium eduli, were important in June and July, with a
greater shift to crop raiding with sweet potatoes being important in
August. the identification of the plants eaten, and their re;lative
importance in the diet will be given in the final reports.
Vocalizations
The
following six vocalization categories were distinguished; alarm, communicative
bark, cry, aggression, play, distress. Oscillograms showed that each
vocalization had different amplitude and power characteristics. The various call
types will subsequently be compared in term of frequency, duration, amplitude
and power range (decibels). Inferences on the function of the calls will be
drawn from the behavioural contexts in which they were given, and the
behavioural responses of the group following their utterance.
Preliminary
abundance estimates
The
density of macaques at La Pago appears to be greater than that at Kakenauwe.
Habitat
structure quadrats
183 10x10m habitat structure quadrates have been completed at Kakenauwe and Kaweli. Tree density (> 30cm CBH) is slightly greater at Kaweli than at Kakenauwe. Other differences may become apparent following further analysis given that there is a greater degree of logging at Kaweli than at Kakenauwe.
Dominance
style
Preliminary
results suggest that the rate and intensity of aggression was generally low and
retaliation occurred in the majority of episodes. No significant effect was
found between dominance rank or rank distance and the frequency and duration of
grooming received. These results would suggest that the Buton macaque should be
classified as nepotistic-tolerant. However, time discrepancies were observed
between young nulliparous females and adult females with infants. Allomothering
was also observed between these dyads thus suggesting that grooming may be
exchanged for allomothering in the Buton macaque.
Crop
raiding
Hindu
farmers’ perceptions of the macaque are generally more positive than Muslim
farmers. However farmers who had had any experience with primates raiding farms
in the past or who also owned plantation crops e.g. cocoa were more negative
about them. The worst pests reported were pigs, monkeys and rats. The most
successful deterrent methods cited were guarding the farm and shouting, chasing
or throwing stones. Damage levels were greater in farms closer to the forest
edge and within farms damage was generally greater closer to the fence. Crops
most heavily damaged were sweet potato, banana and corn; though this may be
affected by what crops are actually available at the time. Focal farm surveys
have demonstrated that these crops are indeed raided more frequently than others
and chasing monkeys seems to be the most successful method of preventing damage,
though even this is not very successful as the primates are not easily scared
away. Further analysis is required to assess the extent of differences between
farmers’ perceptions of raiding and the reality.
Nancy
Priston. An assessment of crop-raiding by Macaca
ochreata brunnescens in Buton, Southeast Sulawesi: farmers’ perceptions,
reality and the impact on primate behaviour and conservation. PhD thesis,
University of Cambridge. 2004
Kathryn
Slater. The dominance style of the Buton macaque (Macaca ochreata brunnescens).
MSc thesis, University of Liverpool. 2002
Adrienne
Bennett. The physical damage and attributable economic impact of crop raiding by
the buton macaque (Macaca ochreata brunnescens) on farms in the village
of Kaweli, Buton island S. E. Sulawesi. Final year dissertation thesis, The
University of Leeds. 2003
Kelly
Beachamp. A comparison of the time activity budgets of two troops of Buton
macaque (Macaca ochreata brunnescens). Final year honours thesis,
University of Southampton. 2003
Aneeta
Chana. Comparison
of habitat usage, range and behaviour within two groups of Buton Macaques at
Kakenauwe and Kaweli.Final
year honors thesis, King’s College London.
2003
Rachel
Eddy. Comparison
of habitat usage, range and behaviour within two groups of Buton Macaques at
Kakenauwe and Kaweli. Final
year honors thesis, University of Southampton.
2003
Gilly
Irving-Lewis. An analysis of behaviours initiated by vocalizations produced by
the Buton Macaque (Macaca ochreata brunnescens). Final year honours
project thesis, University of Aberdeen. 2003.
Kate
Andrews. Behaviour and diet of the Buton macaque (Macaca ochreata brunnescens).
Final year honours project thesis, University of Aberdeen. 2003
Tim
Atwood. The effects of human presence & activity in farms on the crop
raiding habits of the Buton macaque (Macaca
ochreata brunnescens), in Kaweli, Pulau Buton, south-east Sulawesi. Final
year honours thesis, Kings College, London. 2003
Suzanne
Richardson. The daily activity budgets of the Buton macaque (Macaca ochreata
brunnescens) focusing on the role of play in the different age classes.
Final year honours thesis, Royal Holloway, University of London. 2003.
Benjamin
Valsler. The factors influencing the crop raiding
activities of the Buton macaque (Macaca ochreata brunnescens) around Kaweli,
Buton, S. E. Sulawesi.
University of
Wales, College Aberystwyth. 2003.
Ross
Burnet. Behaviour, habitat use & feeding of Buton macaques (Macaca
ochreata brunnescens). Final year honours thesis, Napier University 2003.