Abstract

1. Introduction 

2. Land Use and Protected Areas on Buton 

    2.1 Land Use Divisions on Buton 

    2.2 Protected Areas on Buton 

3. Initial Results of the Buton Bird Survey 

    3.1 Summary of Results by Square 

    3.2 Common Species 

    3.3 Non-forest Habitats 

4. Threatened & Near-threatened Species

    4.1 Threatened Species 

    4.2 Near-threatened Species 

5. Sulawesi Endemics 

6. Indonesian Endemics 

7. New Species Added to the Buton Bird List During 1996 

8. Unconfirmed Species Suspected of Occurring on Buton     

9. Changes to Altitudinal Ranges of Selected Species 

10. Breeding Activity Recorded During 1996 

11. Possible Undescribed Taxon and Incidental Observations 

    11.1 Possible Undescribed Sub-species 

    11.2 Incidental Notes and Observations 

12. Conclusions 

APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Distribution of Birds Endemic to the Sulawesi Faunal Region. 

Appendix 2 Definition of IUCN Threatened Categories. 

Appendix 3 Breeding Activities Recorded During 1996. 

Appendix 4 Kendari Marshes, Mainland Sulawesi. 

Appendix 5 Checklist of Species Recorded from Hoga. 

Appendix 6 Annotated Checklist of Oceanic Species. 

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Important Sites for Conservation Projects

Table 2 Summary of Squares Surveyed During 1996.

Table 3 Twenty Five Widely Distributed Species.

Table 4 Species Commonly Recorded in Non-forested Habitats.

Table 5 Checklist of Species Recorded from Buton Island.

Table 6 Threatened and Near-threatened Species.

Table 7 Species Added During 1996.

Table 8 Species Recorded from Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park.

Table 9 Comparison of Altitudinal Ranges of Selected Species.

Table 10 Selected Species Recorded from Kendari Marshes.

Table 11 Checklist of Species Recorded on Hoga Island.

REFERENCES

Buton is a hilly island, situated just off the south-east peninsula of Sulawesi, in the Flores Sea. The island is fairly large measuring some 150 km long by between 10 and 30 km across, and reaches an altitude of just over 1100 m. Scientifically Buton is little known and hardly any recent information is available on the avifauna of the island. In June 1995 Operation Wallacea started a three year bird survey of Buton Island designed to produce a detailed bird atlas of the island and help with information needed for future conservation projects. To date 231 bird species have been recorded from Buton Island, the vast majority of which have been added by the expeditions carried out by Operation Wallacea.

In 1995 Buton Island was divided into 85 Squares, using a grid system similar to that utilised by the Ornithological Society of Indonesia. During the 1995 Bird Survey 33 squares were surveyed and a total of 187 bird species were identified. Between June and November 1996 12 different teams of volunteers surveyed 44 squares, including 22 new squares. During the survey a total of 207 species were recorded, including 52 Sulawesi endemics and 9 Indonesian endemics. Most Sulawesi endemics proved both common and widespread with 20 species having been recorded from 50% or more of the Buton squares. It is particularly interesting to note that the 1996 Bird Survey added no less than 35 birds to the Buton list including 5 Sulawesi endemics. Of major conservation importance is the presence of 19 threatened and near-threatened bird species on the island, including two species classified as 'endangered' by Birdlife International - Nordmann's Greenshank and the Yellow-crested Cockatoo.

The land masses of the biologically rich region of Wallacea have been isolated for a long time. Lying between the Sunda Shelf of continental Asia and the Sahul Shelf of Australia the region has developed elements of both Asian and Australian fauna and flora. The regions long isolation has resulted in a very high proportion of endemic species, with Sulawesi, the largest island in the region, having the most important centre of bird endemism in Wallacea. Birdlife International has designated 2 Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs) for Sulawesi, as the island supports 57 restricted range species (birds with a global distribution of <50,000 square km). Sulawesi has strong affinities to the Talaud, Sangihe, Peleng, Banggai and Sula island groups and a number of restricted range species are shared between them. If these 2 additional EBAs are included then the number of restricted range species increases to 98, of which 85 occur on Sulawesi (See Appendix 1).

The aim of the Buton Island Bird Survey is to make a complete inventory of the avifauna of Buton Island and to produce a detailed bird atlas for the island. It is hoped that the results will provide a better understanding of the avifauna of this little known area and will identify key areas for future conservation purposes.

The projects objectives are as follows:

· to systematically record all bird observations made on Buton Island;

· to make detailed notes on, and detailed descriptions of, threatened and restricted-range species observed on Buton;

· to work with local officials and people to help raise their awareness of the importance of birds and the importance of conservation in general;

· to provide data to help with the creation of a National Park at the north end of the island.

 

In order to facilitate this Buton has been divided into a framework of 85 5' (minute) squares - representing 5' latitude by 5' longitude. Each square is roughly 5 miles by 5 miles (Figure 2). During the three year survey it is intended that at least 8 team hours will be spent per square. A similar grid system has been adopted by the Ornithological Society of Indonesia, using larger 10' squares.

Buton Island has been divided into a number of land use categories by the Forestry Department of Indonesia (shown in Figure 3), which are designed to take account of local environmental conditions and potential economic activities that these areas can support. Only certain economic activities are allowed in different land use categories, but this is often difficult or impossible to implement on the ground. A great deal of importance is placed on watershed protection, especially since the introduction of irrigated cultivation systems. Watershed protection has met with varying degrees of success and seems to be largely dependent on the knowledge of local people involved in paddy cultivation. Watersheds around Lawele are extremely well protected and extensive tracts of mature forest can be found on the hills around the settlement. Education programmes on forest conservation are underway on Buton and volunteers were asked to participate in forest conservation talks on a couple of occasions.

Nature Reserve - no activities other than land improvement are allowed and there is no provision for traditional use of the area by the indigenous population.

Protected Forest - protected due to the importance of the forest as a watershed; limited numbers of trees may be felled and allowed to regrow.

Limited Production Forest - coppicing of trees is only allowed.

Prominent Production Forest - areas of full-scale tree felling allowed including the clearing of entire areas, and the replanting of economically important tree species.

Plantation or Cultivation Area - consisting of extensive cultivated fields, paddies, fish ponds and plantations (usually cashew nut or coconut).

4. Settlement with Mixed Cultivation - consists of areas with villages and towns and the surrounding fields containing various crops believed to be cultivated primarily for subsistence.

A number of protected areas already exist on Buton and a National Park, at the northern end of the island, is currently awaiting designation by the relevant ministry. Currently only two types of protected area exist on Buton - Protected Forest and Nature Reserves - but neither category is sufficient to guarantee protection. The present out-of-date legislation provides little protection for conservation areas from competing land-uses; for example, legislation provides protection for wildlife in game reserves, but does not provide protection for habitats, which means that timber concessions may be legally granted in these reserves at the discretion of the Director-General of Forestry. Nature Reserves are in theory fully protected, but this is often overlooked by local officials. Lack of consultation between the powerful Transmigration Ministry and ministries connected with the protection of forests and other natural resources is a major problem, which has often resulted in the establishment of transmigration sites within 'protected areas'.

There is (or was) a large area of protected forest in the north of Buton which is believed to contain primary or at least mature secondary forest. This area is due to be designated as a National Park, but legislation has still not been passed and the conservation value of this site is rapidly diminishing. Currently the protected forest is afforded little if any protection as a large transmigration site has been established in the area centred around the settlement of Ronta (Square 15). Aerial surveys have shown that the forests in Squares 15, 16, 20, 24 and 25 have already been devastated and that substantial tracts have been felled in adjacent squares. Large areas of untouched forest still exist, but these are increasingly restricted to steeper slopes and rougher terrain, particularly in Squares 6, 9, 10, 11 and 14. If action is not taken immediately to designate what remains of the "protected forest" as a National Park, then the future conservation value of the area will be irreversibly damaged.

A number of protected forests and nature reserves already exist in the south of Buton. The largest nature reserve is centred on Square 51, but it is currently not known whether this reserve is sufficiently large enough to be of optimal benefit to wildlife. Major land-use changes may need to be implemented and the extension of existing protected areas into adjacent areas of 'production forest' is strongly recommended. Results of surveys in the south of Buton have highlighted the importance of a number of forests, many of which are comparatively small. These forests are often close to centres of habitation and have survived due to the efforts of local village headmen and forest wardens. Due to their close proximity to both villages and road networks, these forests could play a vital role in the development of ecotourism initiatives. These sites are also ideally placed for the implementation of community based conservation projects which could be designed to involve local people, particularly school children, in conservation activities.

Initial results from the 1995 and 1996 bird surveys of Buton Island have been extremely encouraging with 229 species (231 if old records are included) so far having been recorded, including 52 Sulawesi endemics (this figure includes species restricted to Sulawesi and adjacent islands) and 9 Indonesian endemics. Prior to the Operation Wallacea Expeditions little ornithological interest had been shown in the island, and the total number of birds recorded from Buton stood at only 78, including just 24 Sulawesi endemics. One early expedition to Buton described the island as extensively deforested, being covered with dry savanna and grasslands (van Bemmel & Voous, 1951), while the avifauna was described as being impoverished Sulawesian - the number of endemics being limited by the degraded environment. Early habitat assessments of Buton have proved misleading, as while parts of the south have been heavily degraded, much of the island is still covered by forest, especially in the north of the island. Much of the forest is secondary, at various stages of development, but extensive areas of old secondary and/or primary forest exists in the north of the island.

Despite two years of field work carried out on Buton the avifauna is still comparatively little known and the species list for the island is by no-means complete - 35 species were added to the list during the 1996 Survey (3 species were only present on Siumpu and Snake Islands), including 5 endemics. Many of the Sulawesi endemics identified on the island are common and widespread, with 20 species having been recorded from more than 50% of the squares surveyed during 1996. Of major conservation importance is the presence of 19 threatened or near-threatened species on the island, including two species classified as 'endangered' by Birdlife International and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

A total of 56 squares have been surveyed out of a total of 85, plus the additional sites of Siumpu and Snake Islands which are situated to the south west of Buton. Of the 56 squares surveyed to date, 28 squares have had less than 8 hours of survey time spent on them, while a further 29 squares have never been surveyed. The latter include some of the most inaccessible areas on the island. The aim of the 1997 Survey will be to attempt to survey as many of the unknown squares as possible and to increase the survey times for those squares with minimal coverage. The main difficulty encountered during the previous two years has been accessibility with many areas, particularly in the north, being cut off due to washed away roads and bridges. Road improvements were in progress at the end of 1996 and it is hoped that this will help alleviate the problem. Due to problems with accessibility substantially more time was spent in some squares compared with others during 1996 (see Table 2). To some extent this has been exacerbated by the presence of permanent count sites in 6 of these squares. Permanent count sites were created in 1995 in order to provide data on important sites for conservation, and in order to encourage and promote awareness among local people. These sites also provide volunteers with an opportunity of viewing a wide range of birds.

Permanent Count Sites include:

1. Lake Togomotonu - Square 55.

2. Lowland forest near the Maleo breeding site at Maligano - Square 13.

3. Hill and lowland forest around La Bundo-Bundo - Squares 44 & 45.

4. Forest valley behind Bau-Bau used for training purposes by all groups - Square 66.

5. Cockatoo breeding site outside Bau-Bau - Square 65.

Detailed summaries of all surveys carried out during 1996 (by square) can be found in Appendix 8 at the back of this report. An assessment of species diversity per square, is extremely difficult to make given the uneven coverage of squares during both 1995 and 1996. As a general rule the more time spent in a square the greater the recorded diversity of the avifauna, although the type and variety of habitats present also play a crucial role in species diversity. During 1996 six squares were identified as having a particularly diverse avifauna, with each square having 90 species or more recorded within its boundaries - Squares 13, 18, 44, 45, 49 and 55 (see Table 2). If the 1995 results are included then the number of squares with 90 species or more recorded increases to eight (additional squares include Squares 44 & 65). The presence of large tracts of forest appeared to be particularly important in explaining the distribution of Sulawesi endemics and 10 squares were found to have 30 or more Sulawesi endemics present. Not surprisingly all sites, with the exception of Lake Togomotonu, identified as having particular conservation importance are forest sites and it is hoped that most of these forests will be given protection by local officials. No results are available for Trip 9 (28/9/96 to 11/10/96), although interesting records have been included wherever relevant.

Many species proved common, even abundant, and widespread, occupying a wide range of habitat types. As would be expected birds were more abundant in forested or wooded locations especially in areas where forest bordered other mixed habitats. Squares with a wide range of habitat types, both natural and modified, also contained a diverse avifauna - Square 18 being a case in point (141 species recorded during 2 years of field work). Of the 25 most widely distributed species (species occurring in 70% or more of Squares surveyed in 1996), 16 occur widely in adjacent parts of Indonesia and South East Asia, while only 9 are endemic to Sulawesi (Table 3). All species frequented a wide range of habitats including in some cases heavily degraded or modified habitats. It is interesting to note that with the exception of the ubiquitous Sulawesi Babbler, all the Sulawesi endemics appear to be dependant on forested or wooded habitats, including forest patches.

* - Occurrence of species in all squares surveyed in 1996

Climax vegetation on Buton is tropical forest, and as would be expected this is the single most important habitat on the island. Deforestation in recent years has greatly reduced the amount of forest habitat available and this habitat will continue to shrink or even disappear in many areas over the next few years.

* - Species closely associated with forest patches or plantations

A variety of new ecological niches have become available with the clearance and alteration of forest environments, but many of these have not been fully utilised by resident species. A range of new habitats have been created including; grasslands, scrubby savanna, cultivation (including paddy rice), plantations (mainly cashew nut and coconut), plus degraded forest patches. Many areas of Buton, especially in the south, have been cleared repeatedly over a long period of time, resulting in the development of dry scrubby savanna dominated by alang alang grass (Imperata species), Lantana camara and other introduced shrubby species. Large areas of southern Buton are now covered in dense impenetrable thickets.

The avifauna of these modified 'non-forest' habitats is highly impoverished, although a few species are largely dependent on these habitat types. Some 30 species are regularly seen in degraded habitats on Buton, the vast majority of which are commonly found throughout Indonesia and South East Asia (Table 4). Of particular interest is the absence of most Sulawesi endemics, with the exception of the Sulawesi Babbler, from these habitats. Most other Sulawesi endemics found in open habitats are usually associated with remaining patches of forest, or have entered the environment in order to utilise a readily available source of food. Many of the species found in open habitats are surprisingly localised and even uncommon, despite the abundance of suitable habitat - this is true of the Spotted Kestrel, Pied Bushchat and both Cisticolas. This seems to suggest that many species have not had the opportunity to colonise these open habitats, although this will undoubtedly change with time.

The cultivation of rice in irrigated fields on Buton has had a significant impact on waterbirds and waders on the island. Natural freshwater habitats are extremely scarce on Buton, although seasonally flooded areas were previously fairly extensive, prior to the development of transmigration settlements, around the small lakes of Togomotonu and Ambuau, near Lasalimu. The introduction of irrigation schemes and paddy rice cultivation to Buton has resulted in a dramatic increase in the availability of freshwater habitats on the island, although waterbirds seem to have been relatively slow in colonising these habitats. Comparatively few waterbirds were noted during the 1995 Survey away from the vicinity of the two lakes. During 1996 a number of waterbirds were recorded from irrigated rice fields, and it seems likely that numbers will continue to increase. Species regularly noted include Intermediate Egrets Egreta intermedia, Little Egrets E. garzetta, Woolly-necked Storks Ciconia episcopus, Sunda Teal Anas gibberifrons, Buff-banded Rail Gallirallus philippensis, Barred Rail G. torquatus and White-browed Crake Porzana cinerea. Two species, Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus and Javan Pond-Heron Ardeola speciosa, proved to be unexpectedly uncommon in irrigated paddy fields. The latter is abundant on mainland Sulawesi around Kendari, but only small numbers have been encountered to date. Large numbers of migrant waders were attracted to unplanted rice fields between August and November, and these habitats may become important for them in the future. Small seed-eating finches have benefited greatly from the introduction of wet rice cultivation and Chestnut Munias Lonchura malacca are now locally abundant. Important irrigation schemes exist in Squares 45, 49, 55 and 57, and further schemes are under construction. Waterbirds and waders have also adapted readily to the construction of fish ponds around the coast.

The two lakes, unfortunately, have not fared well in recent years due to encroachment of agriculture, and in the case of Lake Ambuau the building of a substantial irrigation ditch. The latter site will probably not survive, but Lake Togomotonu remains an important site for many species. A programme has been agreed with local officials to improve the conservation of Lake Togomotonu and its environs, and it is hoped that this will be sufficient to protect and develop this important Buton site.

A total of 19 threatened and near-threatened species have been recorded from Buton, including two species classified by IUCN (see Appendix 2) as endangered. For an island as small as Buton this represents a very significant total, and Buton could prove to be important for the conservation of some of these species. With the exception of 4 migrant and/or vagrant species (Asian Darter, Nordmann's Greenshank, Bristle-thighed Curlew and Far-Eastern Curlew), all threatened and near-threatened species are thought to be resident. Many of the Sulawesi endemics included within this group are very poorly known, and their status may change when data becomes more readily available.

* - probable reocrd

** - unconfirmed record

A number of factors are adversely affecting the status of many of the threatened or near-threatened species on Buton. In recent years large scale transmigration settlements have been established in the south and east of the island which has resulted in widespread forest destruction. Little importance is often placed on protected areas of forest and a number of transmigration sites have been established in existing forest reserves - the settlement near Lake Togomotonu is a case in point. The huge transmigration settlements in the NE of the island around Ronta have been especially devastating with large areas of old secondary and/or primary forest being clear-felled. Little work seems to be done to determine whether the sites are suitable for agriculture, and many areas have exceptionally poor soils which are often completely dominated by large coral outcrops and crevices. At the present rate of destruction it is doubtful whether much forest will survive, except on the higher and steeper slopes. Methods of timber extraction for local consumption are extremely wasteful and little effort is made to regulate this activity.

The trapping of birds for pets by local people is a major problem on the island, and the population of one parrot species has already declined dramatically. Parrots are the most commonly captured birds, but white-eyes, imperial pigeons and even rails have been observed in captivity. Hunting of birds for food is not currently widespread on Buton, although there are signs that this is changing due to the arrival of transmigrants from Java and elsewhere. Snares are regularly set for Bear Cuscus Phalanger ursinus and the local form of the Booted Macaque Macaca ochreata brunnescens, and birds are occasionally caught; species found dead in snares include Red-Knobbed Hornbills, Fiery-billed Malkoha and Bay Coucal. At present the only species which seems to be suffering from hunting and the collection of eggs is the Maleo.

The total world population of these waders is thought to number c.1000, all of which breed in eastern Russia and winter in SE Asia. Not previously recorded from Wallacea, although there is a record from N Borneo, and up to 21 birds have been seen in SE Sumatra (Collar et al., 1994). Two birds were recorded from Buton during 1996; a single bird seen in fish ponds at Karing Karing on the 22/10/96 (poor photograph taken); a second bird was seen well on a beach in Square 74 on the 5/11/96. At least one, possibly three, Nordmann's Greenshanks were also recorded from fish ponds at Kendari on the 9/11/96. The number of records may indicate that the species winters more regularly in SE Sulawesi.

According to a recently completed status assessment by Birdlife International and the Indonesian Department of Nature Conservation (PHPA), populations of the Yellow-crested Cockatoo have crashed since the 1970s (Poole, 1996). The subspecies sulphura is known to have vanished from many parts of Sulawesi and the largest known population, in the Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, numbers only c.150 birds.

C.s.sulphura is an uncommon and evidently localised species on Buton, which appears to occur predominantly in the south of the island. Associated with forest, including degraded forest, where it is encountered in pairs and small groups of up to 9 birds. A total of 34 birds were recorded in 1996 from 9 squares, all in the south of the island; in 1995 19 birds were recorded from 4 squares, including the only northern record - 5 birds seen near Maligano. Fairly large areas of Buton have still to be surveyed, including extensive areas of lowland forest, and more birds may yet be found. The total Buton population of this species is probably between 50-100 birds, but numbers are decreasing due to trapping and the species is under enormous pressure. Cockatoos are still widely trapped for the pet trade despite being fully protected by Indonesian law. During a visit in November by volunteers to the only known breeding site, just outside of Bau-Bau, 2 birds were shot and injured by local trappers; both birds are now in captivity at the local police station. A number of captive cockatoos were seen throughout the island, all trapped locally. This species is readily available in the bird markets at Kendari, where birds are offered for US$50.00.

Recent studies have indicated a world population of less than c.6000 birds with the bulk of the population breeding in Indonesia; c.5000 birds occur on Sumatra (Collar, 1994). Only recently found in south Sulawesi where a small resident population is thought to occur; small numbers occur in S Sulawesi and a larger population occurs in SE Sulawesi including c.100 birds from Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park (Wardill, 1995). Breeding has not yet been proved from Sulawesi, although there are reports of immature birds from various locations. Milky Storks are especially associated with coastal mangrove swamps, but also utilise other aquatic habitats, including fish ponds, lakes, marshes, tidal flats, saline pools and are occasionally known to visit rice fields (Hancock, 1992).

Not previously recorded from Buton, but known to occur in the mangroves between mainland Sulawesi and Muna (Wardill, 1995). Records from Buton include a single bird at Lake Ambuau, 2/11/96; 21 birds in a large isolated mangrove tree in Square 78, 5/11/96; & 4 adults and an immature in Square 74, 17/11/96. A sighting, at distance, of a very large all white bird in mangroves in Square 8 on the 25/6/96 was probably this species. Urgent surveys are needed to determine the status of this stork on Buton and to establish whether the species breeds locally. The record of an immature from Buton may indicate that the species breeds locally, although birds are known to disperse widely after breeding.

The Maleo is endemic to Sulawesi where it inhabits lowland and hill forest to 1,200m. The remaining population is still thought to be quite large, but the species is vulnerable as it lays communally in traditional nesting grounds (Collar, 1994). Only 85 nesting grounds are known, but 22 have already been abandoned and others are under severe threat.

On Buton, Maleo have only been recorded from 2 squares in the north of the island near Maligano, and 5 breeding sites have been found along a 1.5 km stretch of river north of Maligano. The sites are currently surrounded by mature secondary forest, which at the end of the 1996 Survey was being selectively logged. A transmigration site has been established within 0.5 km of the Maleo sites and the logging of large trees is well underway. All breeding sites suffer from severe disturbance with trees being cut within metres of some sites; the river itself is used for transporting cut timber and loggers are known to collect eggs. Only one breeding site is regularly used with a maximum count of 26 Maleos made in late October. The nest grounds are found along a small stretch of river with thick black deposits of river sand; further upstream the banks become rocky and are thus unsuitable for nesting. No other rivers appear to be suitable on Buton. The Maleo breeding sites must be regarded as severely threatened and immediate action must be taken to eliminate disturbance and protect the surrounding forest. The Governor of SE Sulawesi has expressed an interest in the Maleo sites on Buton, and has asked officials to take action to protect the site.

According to Collar (1992) the Snoring Rail appears to be genuinely rare and may be vulnerable to deforestation, although its elusive habits may account to some extent for the paucity of records. This flightless rail is known from only 11 specimens and 4 sightings made betweeen 1983 and 1992 (del Hoyo, 1996).

A rare and localised rail which is more readily heard than seen. Two birds were observed in an area of swampy thicket close to a main road and an area of lowland forest. Other birds recorded during the 1996 Survey frequented areas of wet lowland forest with dense understories of rattans. Also heard in thick secondary growth and adjacent thick growth of grasses and bushes. Generally encountered, or heard, singly or in pairs. Voice is a distinctive rather quite call ee-orrrr, lasting 1-2 seconds - a very brief wheeze followed by a longer snoring noise, also brief, quiet, deep sigh hmmmm (de Hoyo, 1996). Thought to eat crabs and lizards caught along forest streams. Some of the earlier records of this species are extremely questionable, in particular reports of large groups made during 1995; these records almost certainly refer to the widespread Buff-banded Rail Gallirallus philippensis.

A description of a single bird recorded on the 7/11/96 at Wakalambe fish ponds seems to fit this species. A second bird, also fitting the description of this curlew, was recorded in Kendari the following day. If confirmed these records would represent a dramatic extension to the recorded range of this species; previously known to winter only in the islands of the central Pacific, as far west as Micronesia. These records will undoubtedly represent vagrants, although it is possible that small numbers of this species occur more regularly in the region.

Until recently this nightjar was only definitely known from the type specimen, collected at 250 m in forest on the Minahassa peninsula, although a number of unidentified calls heard elsewhere on Sulawesi have been attributed to this species (White & Bruce, 1986). The Satanic Nightjar was rediscovered in May 1996 when 4 birds were seen at two sites in the Lore Lindu National Park in C Sulawesi (N. Cleere in litt. 1996). A description provided by Cleere is as follows: length c.25 cm, wing length 202 mm; there is a small white spot on the third and fourth outer primaries, situated approximately half way along the outer wing; the male has a prominent white marking around the throat, buffish in the female.

A number of unidentified nightjars, most probably this species, have been observed at altitudes of between c250-c.280 m in secondary forest in the hills above Maligano. All birds observed flew off into the understory of the forest when disturbed. Tape recordings of this species were obtained, but birds did not respond well to play backs of their calls and were thus not caught in mist-nets. A bird was observed calling from the upper branches of a large tree adjacent to the forest road, the call resembles tock-tock. In 1995 a call similar to this was heard in Square 45. A bird observed on the 3/7/96 at close quarters during the middle of the day was dark chocolate brown above with little or no apparent markings. The tail in particular appeared unmarked. At the base of the primary feathers was a small conspicuous white spot. The nightjar was fairly small in size, measuring c.20 cm. The bird had been flushed from its roost in a small clearing caused by a fallen tree, alongside a forest road.

Only recorded during the 1995 survey when 1 bird was sighted. Little suitable habitat exists on Buton for this species and the record probably represents a vagrant from the swamps around Aopa in SE Sulawesi, where this species is reasonably common (Wardill, 1995).

An uncommon and localised species which is restricted to less disturbed stretches of coast. During 1996 this huge heron was only recorded from 4 squares (plus two further squares in the north) with a maximum count of 3 birds. This species was also recorded from Snake Island SW of Buton. During a boat trip between Maligano and Labuana in June 1996, only 6 birds were recorded, suggesting that this species is uncommon even along relatively undisturbed stretches of coast. On Hoga Island in the Tukangbesi individual birds were repeatedly seen catching Sea Crakes of the genus Laticauda. The sea snake was caught in the tip of the bill and then carried away from the pools of water onto dry ground before being shaken vigorously. On a couple of occasions the snake was washed repeatedly in a pool before being swallowed.

A very uncommon and elusive raptor, which was recorded from only 4 squares during 1996. Generally encountered in pairs along the forest edge or in forest clearings, usually during the early morning. Some confusion exists as to the taxonomic status of the birds on Buton Island as a description of a pair observed for some 20 minutes in August 1996 does not agree with any of the literature available. It is possible that the birds on Buton represent a distinct and previously undescribed race of this species (see Chapter 10 for a full description). During the 1995 Survey this species was found to be fairly widespread and it is possible that birds were overlooked during the 1996 Survey. However, this species is probably uncommon throughout Buton and further studies are needed to establish its status.

Recorded from 6, widely distributed, squares during the 1996 Survey. All records were from forested rivers and streams, except for the pair around the two lakes. The latter pair were frequently encountered (generally singly) fishing over Lake Togomotonu, and were found to be nesting in a huge isolated tree next to nearby Lake Ambuau in November. The latter site is under enormous pressure from encroaching agriculture and a newly built irrigation ditch, and it is doubtful whether this site will survive. Probably fairly widespread along remaining suitable forested rivers, although lowland habitats are disappearing rapidly due to clearance for agriculture.

Only recorded on three occasions during the 1996 Survey; all records coming from coastal areas. Two birds observed flying along the coast; one near Maligano in Square 13 and the second bird south of Bau-Bau in Square 70. The third bird was perched in a dead mangrove tree above a fish pond at Karing Karing (Square 49) and was seen clearly by all members of the group. Positively identified in 1995 at Lakes Togomotonu and Ambuau (Square 55 and Square 54 respectively). An undoubtedly uncommon and localised raptor on Buton which is easily confused with the more common and widespread I. humilis.

Practically impossible to distinguish from A. rhodogaster in adult plumage unless seen well. Juveniles, however, are easily identified and can not be confused with any other species. A rare species on Buton with records from only 16% of squares survey in 1996. Apparently confined to areas of old secondary growth or primary forest. Recorded from near sea-level, and thus not confined to montane forest as previously thought.

A juvenile found on the 8/9/96 was repeatedly chased by an adult Sulawesi Goshawk for some 5 minutes. The juvenile eventually flew off into thicker forest leaving the adult Sulawesi Goshawk, which proceeded to call loudly for 2-3 minutes.

An uncommon and infrequently seen raptor, usually seen soaring above forest or the forest edge. Juveniles were more frequently encountered than adults during 1996.

Interesting observations include: an adult bird being mobbed by a pair of Piping Crows and a pair of Hair-crested Drongos. The bird was chased into the mid-canopy of a small tree above a forest track, and was observed to have a large fruit bat in its talons. The bird was startled by the observers and flew off, with the bat tightly clutched in its talons, still being mobbed. A second incident involved a juvenile being chased by a pair of Yellow-crested Cockatoos and a single White Imperial Pigeon in late September. The juvenile making a half hearted attempt to catch one of the cockatoos before flying off over the tree tops. In early September a sub-adult was sighted watching a Yellow-crested Cockatoo nest hole. The pair of cockatoos were extremely agitated, one bird repeatedly dive-bombing the raptor, while the second bird screamed continuously from nearby. After 10 minutes the eagle flew over to the nest tree landing on a large branch some 15 feet from the nest. Both cockatoos immediately flew at the raptor screeching loudly, before veering away at the last minute. They continued to fly around the tree screeching for 2-3 minutes before flying off. After 4-5 minutes the eagle flew away, returning after 3 minutes and flying low over the nest tree. At the same time the pair of cockatoos arrived back with a third individual, and gave chase. The cockatoos returned to the nest tree, but seemed wary about approaching the nest hole.

A very elusive, but probably widespread species in the remaining forests of Buton. There were only two definite records of this species during 1996; one bird seen in July near La Bundo-Bundo Square 45 and a second bird seen in September in Square 50. Both sites consist of good secondary forest. A single bird was recorded from Square 44 in 1995. According to local people this species is occasionally caught for food using snares.

A very uncommon and highly localised plover which seems to be confined to undisturbed or little disturbed sandy beaches. There is only one record from Buton of a pair and three young on a rarely used stretch of beach in Square 55. According to local people this beach is also used by nesting turtles; turtle eggs are collected by local people in November. Other records for this species include a pair on Hoga Island in the Tukangbesi, and a pair from Snake Island SW of Buton. This species may occur on other beaches around Buton, but the total population is likely to be very small; all populations are at risk from disturbance, and this species is undoubtedly threatened on Buton.

Only recorded during the 1995 survey when 2 birds were observed in Square 56. During the 1996 survey 2 birds were recorded from the Kendari mudflats and adjacent fish ponds in mid-November. It is possible that small numbers of this species occur during passage on Buton. Extensive areas of mudflats exist in NE Buton near Ronta, which could hold significant populations of waders during certain periods of the year.

An uncommon species which is confined to areas of forest, particularly more mature forest, and forest edge. Usually in small groups of 4-5 birds. A nest found in late September was in a tall isolated tree overhanging a small track. The nest was placed in the fork of a bare branch some 45 feet up, and consisted of a small cup of very fine twigs, grass and cobwebs. A male was observed repairing the nest with cobwebs, and was later seen incubating. Pair observed copulating in late August. Not seen in company with the next species, and rarely common wherever the latter occurs.

Very uncommon, elusive and easily overlooked species which is only known from three sites. Inhabits the leaf litter of mature secondary forest with little undergrowth. Birds observed rarely perched in the lower branches of undergrowth bushes. Buton birds appear to differ from mainland birds having different facial markings - face all black with with greyish-white area behind the eye, white ear-coverts and a short white malar stripe. It is possible that this represents an underscribed subspecies (see Chapter 10 for full details).

A common species which is largely confined to forested or well wooded areas; more rarely found in thick scrubby vegetation close to patches of forest. Found in pairs or small family parties. Pale-bellied White-eyes have typical white-eye habits and song. Often found in the canopy of tall forest trees, but most commonly observed in the understory and thickets along the forest edge. On two occasions this species was found to join bird parties. Unlikely to be threatened in the future as long as some forest, even degraded, remains. A nest found in early August was placed in a low bush a few metres from a main road; the nest was an untidy cup of grasses. The Pale-bellied White-eye is the only Sulawesi endemic to be restricted to the South East Peninsula of Sulawesi, and thus has a tiny global distribution.

A total of 52 Sulawesi endemics have been identified from Buton. Many of these endemics have proved to be common and widespread with 20 species occurring in 50% or more of the squares surveyed during 1996. A number of endemics have, however, proved extremely rare and/or elusive despite the availability of seemingly suitable habitat. Very little data is available for many of the Sulawesi endemics and effort was made to collect information on the status and behaviour of all endemic species encountered during the surveys. The information presented below represents the findings of the project to date, and has been compiled using the survey records and additional notes made by the author during 5 months of fieldwork in 1996. It is interesting to note that endemic species represented c.40% of birds recorded during all surveys in forested or wooded environments. Surveys conducted in more open and degraded habitats, however, had far fewer Sulawesi endemics, indicating that most endemics are unable to adapt to heavily degraded habitats.

Common throughout Buton, preferring the edges of forest and areas of secondary growth, but also inhabiting the interior of dense forest. Regularly observed sitting motionless on both exposed and concealed perches in the mid canopy. A vocal raptor which calls regularly when perched and while soaring above the forest. Appears to be able to tolerate human disturbance and habitat alteration, and is currently not under pressure.

An uncommon and presumably localised species with few records from mature secondary forest and forest edge. Possibly commoner and more widespread in remaining areas of forest than records indicate, as birds are easily overlooked. Single birds usually encountered sitting quietly in the mid canopy of tall forest trees. Juvenile recorded in late June. An adult was observed chasing off a juvenile Small Sparrowhawk on the 8/9/96.

The commonest accipiter on Buton with records from 45% of the squares surveyed during 1996. Found to occupy a wide range of forest and wooded habitats, including primary and mature secondary forest, forest edge, mangrove forest, mature plantations, and areas of scrubby growth with forest patches. Keeps mainly to thicker cover, but will cross open country between forest patches. A highly vocal species which readily draws attention to itself once the call is learnt. Probably found throughout much of Buton, wherever forest and forest patches remain. Two pairs and a juvenile were recorded from the same small patch of dry forest near Bau-Bau in mid-October.

See Chapter 4 for details.

Readily confused with A. nanus and almost impossible to identify with confidence unless in juvenile plumage. Records from Buton suggest that this species inhabits more open secondary forest and areas of forest edge, and is thus unlikely to compete with the smaller A. nanus. On one occasion observed flying in the open in pursuit of a small bird.

See Chapter 4 for details.

See Chapter 4 for details.

See Chapter 4 for details.

An uncommon and elusive bird with only a handful of records from widely scattered parts of the island. Found in a wide range of habitats, including marshy areas adjacent to streams and areas of dry rank vegetation of grass and scrub well away from water. A bird walking across a dirt road only feet away from a group of volunteers was unconcerned by their presence. The bird continued to walk slowly across the road before entering thick dry scrub where it disappeared. Probably widespread on the island in small numbers. Observed foraging along vehicle tracks in areas of rank grass, and in thick aquatic vegetation exposed by the receding water at Lake Togomotonu. Generally encountered singly or in pairs. A highly vocal bird at times producing a loud, striking, discordant call ending with a loud, clear tak-tak-tak; most often heard at dusk.

A generally uncommon to locally common species frequenting areas of forest, secondary forest and forest edge. A vocal bird which is easily recognised by its call - reminiscent of a European Cuckoo. Observed feed in small flocks on small orange figs in the mid and upper canopy, and also on small unidentified fruits of a small bush in overgrown cultivation next to Lake Togomotonu. A quiet and unobtrusive bird when feeding. Occasionally seen walking along dirt roads in overgrown plantations and on the forest edge. A mostly shy species which keeps to cover and is difficult to approach, flying off at great speed through the trees; a very agile flyer.

Very rare on Buton with only four records during 1995 and 1996. Two records, 4 birds seen on the 14/10/95 and 1 bird on the 1/8/96, are from an area of old secondary forest adjacent to the Maleo breeding sites near Maligano (Square 13). There are also two records of single birds recorded from Square 18 in early October 1995. No other birds have been encountered despite repeated searches in seemingly suitable habitat. On the mainland it is common, but can be difficult to locate keeping to dense foliage in tall trees.

A beautiful species which is usually extremely difficult to observe, keeping to dense cover in the forest canopy. Generally noted in small flocks or singly, especially at dusk when they congregate to roost. In early August a flock of more than 30 birds was observed feeding in a huge fig tree in the early morning. A highly localised pigeon with records from only 7 squares. Appears to favour areas of hill forest, but has been recorded down to 60 m. Never found away from dense forest and could suffer from deforestation in the long term.

The rarest and most localised of all the resident imperial pigeons, being recorded from just 3 squares. Records suggest that it is restricted to areas of mature secondary forest in hilly locations. Encountered singly or in small groups in the canopy of forest trees. Probably threatened on Buton if forest destruction continues.

Common to locally abundant, especially in areas with fruiting fig and palm trees. In common with other imperial pigeons this species wanders widely in-search of fruiting trees. During 1996 recorded from 68% of squares surveyed. Inhabits forest, forest edge, mangroves and areas of degraded woodland, wherever there are fruiting trees present.

An aggressive species which often shows aggression towards its own kind and other species. On the 28/8/96 a single bird was viewed in a fruiting palm tree repeatedly chasing a group of 3 White Imperial Pigeons, 2 Pink-headed Imperial Pigeons and a Slender-billed Crow. All six birds finally left the tree after being repeatedly chased for 3-5 minutes. Large flocks of this species were observed at dusk flying over the hills north of Maligano towards a large area of mangrove forest, presumably to roost. Nesting activity was recorded in September and November.

An incredibly beautiful lory which is common throughout Buton wherever there are flowering trees and patches of forest. Most often seen in areas of more open woodland, secondary growth, forest edge and coconut plantations. Regularly attracted to red-flowering trees along the sea-shore. A popular and commonly kept pet in most villages throughout Buton; populations must ultimately suffer as there is no regulation of the numbers caught.

A highly localised and very rare species with only a handful of records from areas of hill forest. Appears to be confined to areas of mature forest, and is never seen in the open. On mainland Sulawesi this species is shy and elusive, which could help explain the paucity of records on Buton. On mainland Sulawesi this parrot is confined to areas of hill and mountain forest, but it seems that mature forest not altitude is the limiting factor in the distribution of this species. Threatened by forest clearance on Buton.

The commonest of the two hanging-parrot species which is regularly met with around habitation, especially in coconut plantations. Birds are frequently attracted to flower trees in more open country. Inhabits a wide range of forest and wooded environments including dense forest and mangrove forest. With care it is possible to identify this species in flight once the general size and call have been recognised. Hanging-Parrots are not commonly kept as pets and only two birds were seen in captivity during 1996. Breeding has been recorded in early November - a pair feeding 2 juveniles on the 1/11/96.

Less common than L. stigmatus, being found in smaller numbers and in fewer locations around the island. This species appears to be restricted to more forested habitats than L. stigmatus, where it keeps to the canopy. Repeatedly confused with L. stigmatus during the early stages of 1996 - all Hanging-Parrots without red crowns were attributed to the latter despite the fact that juvenile and female Sulawesi Hanging-Parrots often have little or no red on the crown. It is thus inevitable that earlier records for this species are erroneous and misleading.

A locally common even abundant species, frequenting areas of forest, especially in hilly areas. In one forest in the hills above Maligano over 150 birds where observed in the late afternoon flying high overhead in small (4 - 7 birds) lose flocks. Almost all birds were flying in a northerly direction presumably to roost. An extremely difficult bird to observe, being shy and very wary. Birds freeze in the foliage when approached, before exploding out of the canopy screeching loudly. Readily attracted to trees with small fruits. Active and noisy at night often flying around at height screeching continuously. Very few captive birds were seen in 1996, although this species was formerly caught in large numbers on Buton (Forshaw, 1989).

A very elusive bird with only 3 sightings during the 1996 survey. All birds seen were in mature secondary forest with numerous large trees. One bird was perched in the canopy of a large bare tree, where it remained for over 10 minutes.

A frustratingly difficult species to observe, which keeps to dense forest cover where it is almost impossible to see. Common and widespread in all forest habitats, including fairly degraded forest patches. The haunting call of this species is one of the commonest sounds on the island (in all suitable habitats); birds calling mostly at dawn and dusk, but also during the night. The few birds observed all had black bills. In 1995 it was reported that the Common Koel E. scolopacea was also present on Buton (Viney, 1995), but there is no evidence to support this claim.

A striking large and clumsy bird, often seen crashing through the foliage of the mid-storey. Inhabits woodland and forest where individuals search for large insects and small animals. Individuals have a habit of remaining motionless in the foliage while peering around slowly looking for prey. Almost always associated with groups of Macaques - 39 birds counted following one troop. Observed nest building in October - nest was situated inside a small mango tree. One bird was observed 'flycatching' after heavy rain in June - the bird repeatedly snatching termites from the air before crashing to the ground in a heap. Other birds have been observed catching large crickets in the foliage.

The call of this bird is characteristic of nearly all forested and wooded areas of Buton. The Bay Coucal occurs throughout the island, with records from 80% of squares surveyed during 1996. A skulking species which creeps around in dense thickets of vines and foliage, and is more often heard than seen. Especially vocal at dawn and dusk, although birds also frequently call at night. Regularly follows groups of Macaques, and frequently joins bird parties. After heavy rain has been observed catching termites from the ground, or snatching flying termites from the air.

Uncommon and elusive, although probably more widespread than records suggest. A bird seen clearly on the 6th of November, quartering low over short grassland on Snake Island, is the only definite sighting of this species during 1996. A second bird was heard in the hill forest above Maligano - the call being a typical single drawn-out barn owl screech, repeated at infrequent intervals. Appears able to tolerate a wide range of habitats from dense forest to open scrubby grassland and coconut plantations.

A common and widespread little owl which occurs throughout the island, wherever there are areas of forest or scattered trees. Able to adapt to well-developed plantations of cashew-nuts and to trees around human habitation. A tame and easily approached bird which is not readily disturbed by spot lights - birds continuing to call even when spot-lit. Probably increasing in numbers due to forest clearance and the creation of more favourable habitat.

Only one record from a well-wooded river valley in south Buton; Square 72. The bird was surprised while roosting in a small cave in an area of old secondary forest. No other birds have been encountered and the call has not been recognised. On mainland Sulawesi this Hawk-Owl is said to inhabit more open habitat than N. ochracea and is consequently increasing in numbers. Unidentified owl calls heard around Buton may represent this species.

Two birds observed in heavily degraded forest next to Lake Togomotonu are the only records of this species made by Operation Wallacea - Buton is included by White and Bruce (1986) as a location for this species, but no further details are given. Records from mainland Sulawesi indicate that this species inhabits areas of dense forest, but this has not yet been established on Buton. Calls heard at night in dense forest above La Bundo-Bundo have been tentatively attributed to this species.

See Chapter 4 for details.

There are only three records of this beautiful kingfisher from widely scattered locations on Buton. All records were from areas of mature secondary forest with little undergrowth. An unobtrusive, solitary, kingfisher which is probably uncommon throughout Buton in remaining areas of dense rainforest. Threatened by forest clearance on Buton.

A locally common kingfisher along less disturbed stretches of coast. Prefers areas of mangroves or rugged stretches of coast with overhanging rocks and vegetation. A few birds were also recorded some distance away from the coast along wide rivers and their tributaries; 2 birds were recorded c.4 kilometres from the coast along a wide fast flowing river in the hills above Maligano, c200 m. Usually seen sitting motionless above the water, and nearly always found in pairs. A very wary species which rarely tolerates observers.

Apparently a scarce species on Buton, which is known from only two sites; Squares 60 and 76. All birds were found in dense undergrowth of old secondary forest; the bright red bill drew attention to the presence of this tiny species in all cases. Possibly more common than the three records indicate, although it is possible that this forest kingfisher has a localised distribution.

Recorded frequently in June and from September to November, in a variety of habitats including cultivation, coconut plantations, forest edge and secondary forest. Birds were found to be more closely associated with forested habitats from July to mid-September; occurring in the forest canopy; on one occasion a pair was found in the forest understorey. Readily attracted to recently felled trees along the forest edge. Usually in pairs or small family groups of up to 6 birds. Observed catching large insects on short flights, the bird returning to the same perch to consume the prey.

Less conspicuous and more rarely encountered than the much larger Red-Knobbed Hornbill; may prove to be as widespread and common as the latter species. Largely confined to mature forest, more rarely present in degraded forest. Always encountered in small family parties of 5 - 7 birds. Keeps to the forest sub-canopy where it is difficult to observe despite their characteristic calls which attract attention. All males seen had bright yellow faces - presumably stained by fruit juices. Observed crossing small open areas in order to reach adjacent patches of forest, but does not seem to be able to cross wider breaks in the forest cover. A vocal species, especially when different groups meet up.

A common and conspicuous bird on Buton which occurs in surprisingly high densities. This hornbill is dependent on forested areas, but is regularly seen in more open country at fruiting palm and fig trees. A single female was observed flying across a wide (c.2 km) valley. This species is under enormous pressure from forest clearance and the removal of large nesting trees. Few pairs appeared to be breeding in the south during the nesting season (August to November), as most birds encountered were in pairs. The forest in the south is under heavy pressure from large transmigration settlements, and extensive areas of forest have already been cleared. Large trees in more isolated and difficult to reach forests are now being targeted by timber cutters as few large trees exist in more readily accessible areas.

Apparently very uncommon and localised on Buton with surprisingly few records, although it is easily overlooked. Regarded as common on mainland Sulawesi. Recorded in dense secondary forest and forest edge; particularly attracted to dead trees along the forest edge. Found in pairs or small family parties of up to 4 birds. Observed searching for food on vines and small branches.

Pairs and small family parties of up to 7 birds were regularly encountered in forested and wooded environments; including mangroves and coconut plantations. Not confined to dense forest, as individuals were frequently found in heavily degraded habitat, even tiny forest patches. Not particularly shy, birds allowing a close approach on occasion. Observed feeding mostly on standing living and dead wood, also vines and even thin branches; never observed on or near the ground. Aggression between males observed on a number of occasions with birds chasing each other through the forest - two males chased each other for over 10 minutes. Males were regularly heard drumming on a dead branch or tree trunk in October and November.

See Chapter 4 for details.

A common species regularly encountered in pairs and small family groups. Occurs in the forest margins and in degraded secondary forest, but is most commonly seen in more open habitats including areas of scrub. Particularly common in areas of mangrove adjacent to plantations and woodland. A very vocal species; members of a group constantly calling to each other particularly in flight.

Frequently encountered in forest habitats including secondary growth; mostly in pairs. Prefers more wooded locations to the more common C. tenuirostris, but both can be found together in areas of degraded secondary forest. A highly vocal bird which is more often heard than seen in dense forest.

As with the last species the Sulawesi Pied Triller has been found to prefer more wooded and forested habitats. Mostly encountered in pairs, occasionally in close proximity to L. sueurii. The latter tends to be more of a forest edge and savanna species and is thus more widely distributed than L. leucopygialis. This is an active species which searches energetically through the branches of forest trees for insects.

A widespread and not uncommon species which is nearly always encountered in pairs. Found to inhabit a wide range of habitats, including fringing mangrove forest, degraded secondary forest and dense forest. Occasionally seen in isolated trees in cultivated areas. In forest areas birds appear wary, although they are inquisitive and will approach the observer, before flying away through the canopy screeching loudly.

Aggression towards the larger Slender-billed Crow was shown on a number of occasions. One pair were observed attacking a pair of C. enca at fish ponds at Karing Karing; Square 49. The pair of C. enca were initially attacked by one Piping Crow while perched in a tall palm tree overlooking the fish ponds. The Piping Crow dive-bombed both birds repeatedly screeching and whistling all the time. A second bird joined the first and both C. enca flew away across the fish ponds closely pursued by the Piping Crows. The latter broke off after some 200 m, returning to the original palm tree; both birds performing some kind of display flight with dropped and fluttering wings. Two birds watched eating small orange figs in a small tree. Pair recorded with fledgling in late June.

A ubiquitous species occurring throughout the island, where it inhabits a wide range of habitats from dense forest undergrowth to areas of grassland or scrub. Able to tolerate and even thrive in heavily degraded habitats as long as there is dense undergrowth. Generally in pairs or small family groups. A skulking species that is not particularly shy, often being found at the observers feet. An inquisitive bird which will often approach the observer to obtain a better look, before disappearing quietly into the undergrowth again. Extremely vocal in the early morning until about 8.00 a.m, but rarely heard during the remainder of the day although some birds will call at dusk.

See Chapter 4 for details.

There are two, unexpected, records from Buton, both from c.60 m which is considerable lower than this species has ever been recorded on the mainland. One bird was observed in an old overgrown cashew-nut plantation just outside of Pasarwajo, Square 68; the second bird was seen in old secondary forest near the Maleo breeding site, Square 13. This active species has not been found at any other location and must be extremely uncommon - probably a relict and decreasing population.

Commoner in the north of the island than the drier south. Always associated with forest edge environments where it replaces the more abundant White-breasted Woodswallow. A nest was found on the 11/11/96 in a bare tree alongside a forest road in Square 66. The nest was placed in a fork about 30 feet up, and consisted of an untidy cup of twigs and mosses. One bird was sitting on the nest while two other birds were perched nearby.

Pairs and occasionally small groups of up to 5 birds were seen on most forest or woodland surveys. Less common than the other 2 endemic myna species, with birds keeping to the forest canopy where they are not readily noted. Groups are occasionally attracted to flowering trees in more open habitats.

A generally common and widespread species which occurs in plantations, secondary forest, dense forest and savanna areas with forest patches. Usually in pairs or small groups. An active and noisy species, which moves around in the canopy in an acrobatic almost squirrel like manner. Individuals regularly hang upside-down to reach small figs and berries. Frequently perch at the top of isolated dead trees in cultivated areas. Nesting activity noted on the 24/10/96; nest hole c.35 feet up in a horizontal branch. Fledglings were also seen on the 20/6/96 in the company of a group of adults.

A localised, but common species which is closely associated to its nesting trees during the breeding season. Most often encountered in or close to forest or forest edge. A number of breeding colonies were recorded during 1996 - usually number between 50 - 300 birds. Two non-breeding roost sites were also found; one was found in June in a group of palm trees in the middle of a paddi field (Square 57); the second roost was found in August in 3 tall leafless trees close to the forest edge, and comprised of c.250 Finch-billed Mynas and c.350 Rainbow Bee-eaters Merops ornatus (Square 49).

A commonly encountered bird in both woodland and forest habitats. Regularly found in the canopy of dense forest, but more often seen in bushes and low trees along the forest edge. Attracted, often in large numbers, to fruiting wild cherry bushes. A highly active species which is extremely difficult to follow as it flits around constantly amongst the branches. One of the most widely distributed birds on Buton, occurring in 77% of Squares surveyed during 1996.

A very uncommon species which has been recorded from only 4 squares in the south of Buton - all sites at an altitude of between c.200-250 m. The altitudes recorded from Buton represent a considerable decrease in the previous lower altitudinal limit for this species (previously recorded down to 700 m). All four birds observed were male, 3 were encountered in good secondary forest, while the fourth bird was seen in an area of scrubby secondary forest adjacent to a larger area of forest.

Common, even abundant, in most habitats including savanna and areas of scrub. Appears to be more common than D. aureolimbatum in more scrubby habitat, but is less common in heavily wooded areas. Common in coconut plantations, including those on small neighbouring islands. A pair were observed feeding young on the 6/8/96; the nest was a straggly ball of fine grasses and twigs placed beneath a large leaf.

See Chapter 4 for details.

A total of 9 Indonesian endemics have been identified from Buton; most are common and widespread. A number of these Indonesian endemics have very restricted ranges and comparatively little is known about their behaviour and status. Two species are small island specialists, being restricted to the small islands in the Flores and Banda Seas.

A surprisingly uncommon and localised falcon, throughout much of Buton despite the availability of suitable open habitat. Invariably encountered in pairs, occasionally singly, over open grassland or scrub. One record of 2 birds from a forested river in Square 13. The absence of Spotted Kestrel from large areas of suitable habitat, is probably due to the speed with which these habitats have been created in recent years, and birds have thus not had the opportunity to occupy these habitats.

Previously regarded as a race of the Grey Teal A. gracilis and only recently given full species status. A wide ranging but comparatively little known species (Young, 1996), occurring throughout Indonesia from S Sumatra to Timor and Sulawesi.

On Buton found in at least 5 squares, with the highest population found around Lake Togomotonu (maximum count c.140). Smaller numbers found in paddy fields, fish ponds and adjacent mangrove forests.

Restricted to the islands of Java, Bali and Sulawesi, plus small neighbouring islands. A common even locally abundant bird on Buton which was found in 70% of all squares surveyed during 1996. Appears to be a nomadic species which wanders widely in search of fruiting trees (mainly fig). Evidence indicates that birds move between Buton and the mainland; during 1995 T. greiseicauda was found to be less common than the Pink-necked Green Pigeon T. vernans; during 1996 the opposite was found to be the case. Found in a wide range of habitats, but appeared to be commoner in coastal areas, especially in more open locations and along the forest edge. Often congregating in large groups (20-60 birds) in favoured fruiting trees, where birds were often difficult to detect in the foliage. During October and November birds were more active - males chasing each other constantly through the foliage.

A small island specialist which is restricted to the small islands north, east and south of Sulawesi, plus small islands between Seram and the Kei Islands in the Banda Sea.

An uncommon visitor to coastal areas of Buton Island; small numbers recorded during 1995 from 6 squares, while only 2 birds were seen during 1996 (Square 18). All birds seen were in woodland or forest adjacent to the coast. This species has been seen on a number of occasions on Hoga Island in the Tukangbesi. This magnificent Imperial Pigeon is not easily confused with any other imperial pigeons when seen clearly - wings, back, rump and tail shining green intermixed with dark blue, especially on wings and tail; underparts pale grey, belly white, some chestnut on vent; head and neck pale silvery grey, pale salmon-pink tinge on nape and crown; clear white area at base of bill and on forehead; under-wing entirely black (description made on Hoga Island by author 12/8/96).

Restricted to small islands in the Flores and Banda Seas, plus the Lesser Sunda islands; straggler on Sulawesi (Goodwin, 1967). Some confusion still surrounds the identity of this Imperial Pigeon which is very similar in overall appearance to the more widespread Green Imperial Pigeon D. aenea. The following field characteristics were noted during 1995 (Sykes, 1996) and subsequently used during the 1996 surveys: The upper parts of D. aenea are richer green with a large coppery nuchal patch. D. rosacea was larger and duller in appearance, with a more extensive but paler area of coppery pink on the nuchal patch. Viney (1995) questioned the accuracy of D. aenea records from Buton, regarding all birds as D. rosacea. Photographs taken of specimens from Tring (British Museum of Natural History) were of little help being old and faded. The author is not totally satisfied with the above, and subsequent literature searches seem to indicate that all, or at least most, birds on Buton may prove to be the more widespread D. aenea - more work must be done on this species during 1997 in order to determine the status of this species.

A common even abundant species throughout Buton, inhabiting forested and open country wherever fruiting trees are present; recorded from 80% of squares surveyed during 1996. Attracted to isolated fruiting palm and fig trees in open country, but appears to prefer forest edge environments. Roosts communally in small groups, in large forest trees from which birds disperse in the early morning. A highly vocal species. Display flights often observed; birds during normal flight suddenly shoot up 2-3 metres before hanging poised for a moment and then diving steeply, before levelling off or landing in a tree.

See Chapter 4 for details.

A not uncommon bird, which is certainly more widespread than the records indicate; recorded from only 7 squares during 1996. More often heard than seen, being difficult to spot in the forest canopy. Appears to prefer forested locations including forest edge, secondary growth and overgrown plantations.

Restricted to the Moluccan region of Indonesia. A locally common munia in rice fields, grassland, bushes and scrub throughout much of Buton, particularly along the edge of forest and cultivated areas. Frequently found in small numbers along the roadsides. Large numbers, more than 100 birds, regularly seen in the vicinity of rice fields. A party of 9 juveniles were noted in early July.

Restricted to the Lesser Sunda islands, plus central and southern Sulawesi (Clement 1993). By far the most uncommon munia on Buton with very few records in either 1995 or 1996. A group of 50 birds was recorded from Square 54 during 1995, but only 6 birds were seen during the whole of 1996 (Square 44). Inhabits grassland, fallow fields and more rarely rice fields, especially along the forest margins or in forest clearings.

During the 1996 Bird Survey a total of 35 species were added to the Buton list, including 5 Sulawesi endemics. Included within this total are 3 species which were recorded only from Siumpu and Snake Islands SW of Buton. In addition 2 unconfirmed species were sighted and 1 species was reported which requires further data before its occurrence can be proved. Although previously recorded from Buton (White & Bruce, 1986), the Ochre-bellied Hawk-Owl was recorded for the first time by the Operation Wallacea.

* - probable reocrd

[] - possible sightings requiring further data

** - unconfirmed record

SI - reocrded from Siumpu or Snake Island only

PR - recorded from Buton prior to 1995

1996 - species suspected of occurring in 1996

The addition of so many species to the Buton bird list proved something of a surprise as after the first year of survey work only a few species may have been expected to be added. The large number of new species can, however, be explained in part by the emphasis placed on previously under-surveyed habitats, especially coastal areas and areas of lowland forest.

A small group of 4 birds were seen on the 24/6/96 off shore from Maligano; the group consisted of a male, one female and two juveniles. This species is a regular visitor to the coast of north Borneo, but has not definitely been recorded from Sulawesi. Two specimens are reported from N Sulawesi but these remain unconfirmed (White & Bruce, 1986).

A single bird was observed in the company of 35 Little Egrets Egreta garzetta in an area of unplanted rice fields on the 20/8/96 (photographs were taken). A very rare migrant to Sulawesi, although this species is more regular further east. Birds are thought to represent non-breeding migrants from Australia.

See Chapter 4 for details.

An adult seen on the 10/9/96 on Siumpu Island SW of Buton is the only record. The bird was observed flying low over an area of open grassland and scrub. This raptor is common in SE Sulawesi, and may well be widespread on Muna which has large areas of suitable open habitat.

Single record of an immature quartering low over rice fields north of Bau-Bau in Square 57. An unconfirmed report was made of this species during the 1995 survey and it is possible that small numbers of this species are resident or occur occasionally as vagrants.

Reported during 1995, but only recorded with certainty during the 1996 survey. Found to be widespread, with records from 7 squares (mainly in the east and around Maligano). All records are of birds soaring above forest in hilly areas.

A very uncommon duck with records from the fish ponds at Karing Karing (Square 49) and Maligano. This species is also uncommon and localised on the Sulawesi mainland, and it is not known whether birds on Buton are resident or migrants from the mainland.

Four birds were observed at Lake Togomotonu in July. Suitable habitat around the lake is only present during the rainy season and birds are probably forced to migrate during the dry season, possibly to the mainland?

Two birds were recorded from Buton during 1996, with a further 2 birds from nearby Snake Island.

One bird recorded from an undisturbed beach in Square 55. This species has also been recorded from Hoga, and c.24 were observed at the Kendari fish ponds in mid-November.

See Chapter 4 for details.

A single bird was observed on an undisturbed beach in Square 55. The bird was still in partial breeding plumage. Also recorded from Hoga Island in the Tukangbesi.

Two birds seen flying along a beach at Square 83 remain the only records from Buton.

A single bird was observed at low tide beside the pier at Maligano on the 5/11/96. Vagrants are known to reach Australia, and there are a handful of unconfirmed reports from S Sulawesi, including a recent report of 15 near Makassar in late 1989 (Baltzer, 1990).

Large numbers observed during sea voyages during 1995 and 1996. A group of 21 birds and a second group of 8 birds were observed close to Maligano on the 10/9/96. A substantial population of this phalarope appear to over winter in the seas south and east of Buton, as all birds seen were flying towards the south and south-east.

See Chapter 4 for details.

See Chapter 4 for details.

A single bird observed on Snake Island SW of Buton is the only record of this species from Buton. This huge thick-knee seems to prefer undisturbed beaches and is thus absent from most coastal areas around Buton. A pair are known to be resident on Hoga Island in the Tukangbesi, where they keep to the far side of the island away from the marine base. There are only 2 recent reports of this species from Sulawesi (del Hoyo, 1996).

Five birds seen flying overhead in Square 66 and a single bird seen at Maligano are the only records of this species.

A single bird in non-breeding plumage was observed at Lake Togomotonu on the 2/11/96. The bird was observed perched on a log in the middle of the lake, plus feeding low over the water.

Single birds were seen close inshore in Squares 28 and 74. This tern was seen regularly, often in large numbers, during sea voyages in October and November. Huge mixed flocks, numbering hundreds of birds, White-winged Terns, Bridled Terns and Sooty Terns S. fuscata were regularly seen in the striates between Wowoni Island and Buton Island during these months.

A single bird was recorded off-shore from Square 28 in mid-August. One of the commonest terns in the area during the months of October and November.

Four Fairy Terns were seen in a small mixed flock off-shore from Square 28 on the 17/9/96. During August and September a small colony of Fairy Terns was regularly observed from the Kendari - Bau-Bau Ferry on small islets near Raha on Muna. It is possible that the terns were nesting in the trees present on the islets as birds were observed constantly entering and leaving the trees.

A pair of doves were observed sunning themselves on Siumpu Island on the 10/9/96. Both birds allowed a close approach (within 15 feet).

See Chapter 5 for details.

See Chapter 5 for details. This species has previously been recorded from Buton, but not by Operation Wallacea (White & Bruce, 1986).

See Chapter 4 for details.

A bird was observed at close quarters along a road in an area of grassland close to Maligano. The description and call seem to be identical to this species. The race C. m. schlegelii is know from the Lesser Sundas and the islands of Salayar and Tanahjampea south of Sulawesi. A second form which was previously included as a subspecies of the Long-tailed Nightjar has recently been given full species status as the Sulawesi Nightjar C. celebensis. The latter is found in north Sulawesi and on the island of Sula. Given the proximity of the Salayar and Tanahjampea Islands to Buton and the similar habitats found on both, it is more likely that the bird seen belongs to C. macrurus and not to C. celebensis.

A single bird was observed in the early morning in the company of a Fork-tailed Swift, a Purple Needletail and c.30 Pacific Swallows, just off the Maligano jetty on the 25/10/97.

Unconfirmed reports of this species from near Bau-Bau airport were made in 1995. In 1996 this species was found to be locally common along a stretch of rugged coast and beach in Square 70. A maximum count of c.25 birds was made in early August.

See Chapter 5 for details.

See Chapter 5 for details.

This Hooded Pitta remains a probable, but unconfirmed species, as no details were provided by the observers! A total of 3 birds were seen in the hill forest near Labuana (Square 5) in late July 1996. If these records are subsequently accepted they will represent a substantial range extension for this species - previously only recorded from N Sulawesi.

A singing bird was heard in late August at Wakalambe (Square 49) in thick vegetation adjacent to a small pond; this bird was still calling in early November. Two birds were heard and seen at Maligano in October in an area of rank grass.

See Chapter 5 for details.

Unconfirmed reports of a whistler type bird were made in 1995 in Square 56. Observations of whistlers, made in mangroves at Lawele in July and Maligano in August, confirmed the presence of P. grisola on Buton. This is a significant discovery as no whistlers had been previously recorded in lowland habitats on Sulawesi. Small numbers of this species have since been heard or seen around the island, but numbers are very small and the species is obviously very uncommon and localised. This species is known from the Greater Sundas.

An unconfirmed record as no details were provided by the observers. Previously recorded from N and E Sulawesi and its occurrence on Buton is thus likely. Single bird reported from Square 58 on the 3/7/96 and 2 birds from Square 49 on the 4/7/96.

A great deal of confusion existed in 1995 as to the identity of the glossy starling found on Buton. The Short-tailed Glossy Starling A. minor had previously been recorded on Buton by White and Bruce (1986), while A. panayensis was known only from N and NC Sulawesi. Both species have now been identified on Buton with A. panayensis being by far the commoner of the two starling species. A. minor appears to be uncommon and localised with the largest concentration being in the north of the island around Labuana. Both species have been seen together around the latter location.

See Chapter 5 for details.

A number of species were suspected, but not confirmed, of occurring on Buton during the 1995 Bird Survey. The confusion surrounding many of these species was resolved during the 1996 Bird Survey, but work carried out during this period was unable to resolve all of the queries raised during the previous year, and a number of species remain as unconfirmed and/or doubtful in some cases. Not all unconfirmed reports relate to the 1995 survey period. Mention needs to be made of the following:

Dusky Cuckoo-Dove Macropygia magma : this species was reported on a number of occasions during 1995, and although a number of 'unusual' Slender-billed Cuckoo-Doves M. amboinensis were sighted in 1996 none were thought to be M. magma. The latter species is a small island specialist which is known to occur on a chain of islands in the Flores Sea south of Sulawesi. There is some variation in the colouration of M. amboinensis on Buton, both between the sexes and between adults and juveniles, which may help to explain some of the confusion.

Barred Buttonquail Turnix suscitator : Confusion still surrounds the identity of the Turnix species on Buton Island. During the 1996 survey a number of buttonquails were recorded from various squares, but sightings were inadequate in most cases to provide a positive identification. A single Red-backed Buttonquail T. maculosa was identified from Square 56 and 4 birds were clearly seen on Snake Island SW of Bau-Bau on 14/11/96. 1995 reports of Barred Buttonquail T. suscitator remain unconfirmed.

Bonnelli's Eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus : A single bird was seen at Maligano on the 27/10/95. This species is not known from Sulawesi, but a small population is known to occur on the islands of Sumba, Timor and Wetar in the Lesser Sundas (del Hoyo, 1994).

Black-thighed Falconet Microhierax fringillarius : A report of this species was made in 1995, but no further sightings have been made. The 1995 report was based on 2 birds seen on the 14/10/95 in Square 18. Both birds were observed at a distance, perched in the top of a tall dead tree on the edge of a partly felled forest. A sketch and notes were taken by Sykes who is familiar with this species. Buton is well outside the recognised range of all Microhierax species, although M. fringillarius is known to occur in both Borneo and Bali. All members of this genus are very easily overlooked and the species could well be present in small numbers in the Sulawesi region.

Black-tailed Gull Larus crassirostris : A record of this species was made on the 30/10/95 close inshore at Lasalimu (Square 48). All key identification features were noted and this record appears to be acceptable; White and Bruce (1986) include this species as an expected vagrant in the Wallacean region.

Javanese Turtle Dove Streptopelia bitorquata : Single captive bird seen on Siumpu Island on the 13/11/96. According to local people the bird had been caught locally, but no birds were seen on the island. If this species is present then the population has almost certainly been introduced. Occurs from Java through the Lesser Sundas to Timor, inhabiting open country, cultivated areas and the outskirts of villages (Goodwin, 1967).

Red-Spotted Racket-tailed Parrot Prioniturus flavicans : A number of reports of this species were made in August and September of 1995, but no sightings were made of this species in 1996. The much smaller Golden-mantled Racket-tailed Parrot P. platurus is locally common on Buton, and it seems unlikely that the ecologically similar P. flavicans will also be present. P. flavicans has only been recorded from N and NC Sulawesi where it inhabits montane forest, but it is little known and could conceivably occur in SE Sulawesi.

Purple-bearded Bee-eater Meropogon forsteni : A single bird reported from Square 44 in 1995 remains the only possible record of this Sulawesi endemic from Buton. This is a unobtrusive inhabitant of undisturbed and mature secondary forest in N, C and SE Sulawesi and it is possible that a small population of this species is present on Buton.

Geomalia Geomalia heinrichi : Two birds reported from Square 44 on the 4/8/95 seem highly doubtful, given the altitudinal range of this montane species; only recorded between 1700-3500 m (White & Bruce, 1986).

Sulawesi Mountain Drongo Dicururus [bracteatus] montanus : Despite a number of reports during 1995 of this species from 'high' altitude in the south, there seems to be no evidence to support the occurrence of this drongo on Buton. No birds were seen during 1996 with dark eyes despite constant checks being made, and the most likely explanation for 'dark' eyed birds is that they represent juveniles of D. hottentottus.

Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius : 3 birds were seen in Square 18 on 15/10/95, and a single bird was seen on 11/10/95 in Square 44. A tailorbird was briefly sighted on the 25/6/96 in Square 18. As described in the commentary of the 1995 report (Sykes, 1996), Buton is well outside the accepted range of this species, although the Mountain Tailorbird O. cuculatus is known to occur in SE Sulawesi between 1000-2000m.

Reed-Warbler Species Acrocophalus species : On the 26/696 a large unidentified reed-warbler was observed by 2 members of the group in a small patch of reeds and other aquatic vegetation along a thickly forested river in Square 5. The bird was mainly brown in colour with no supercilium, a whitish throat and upper breast, grey legs and a red-brown tail. Neither observer recognised the bird, despite being familiar with both reed-warbler species in the area - A. orientalis and A. stentoreus.

Leaf-Warbler/Migratory Warbler Phylloscopus species : A number of reports were made during 1995 (August to October) of Phylloscopus type warblers in Squares 19, 45 and 67. Opinion differed on whether the birds seen were Arctic Warblers P. borealis "a winter visitor throughout Wallacea" (White & Bruce, 1986), or the endemic Sulawesi Leaf-Warbler P. sarasinorum which is only known from mainland Sulawesi above 1100 m. No Phylloscopus type warblers were reported from Buton during the 1996 Survey, until early November when a single bird was heard calling just south of Maligano - tape recordings were, but no identification has been made to date.

Blue Flycatcher species : 2 'blue flycatchers' were reported from Square 67 on 3/8/95 and a single bird was reported from Square 44 on 4/8/95. During the 1996 survey a 'blue flycatcher' was briefly sighted on 28/6/96 from Square 18. These records could relate to the endemic Rufous-throated Flycatcher Fidecula rufigula which may occur on Buton; this species is known to occur in SE Sulawesi (Wardill, 1995).

Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus : A report of this species from Square 13 on the 12/11/95 seems to be reliable. This species has previously been records from N and E Sulawesi (White & Bruce, 1986).

Lemon-throated White-eye Zoosterops anomalus : Reported during 1995 and during the early part of 1996. Both Z. anomalus and the Pale-bellied White-eye Z. consobrinorum are very similar in general plumage but differ significantly in the latter having a large white-eye ring which is replaced by a black-eye ring in Z. anomalus. All birds observed on Buton had large white-eye rings, and it is very unlikely that Z. anomalus will be found on Buton, as it is restricted to the southern peninsula of Sulawesi around Makassar (White & Bruce, 1986).

W = wetland

M = mud-flats

LF = lowland forest

HF = lowland & hill forest

Buton Island is dominated by a ridge of hills running north-south down the centre of the island and by a large hilly range at the north end of the island which reaches a maximum elevation of 1100 m. As Buton does not reach any appreciable height the island's avifuna is relatively impoverished with most montane species found on the mainland being absent. In particular a number of Sulawesi montane endemics are not found on Buton due to the lack of suitable habitat. Work done during the past two years has, however, produced some unexpected results, with a number of species occurring on Buton at much lower elevations than previously recorded on mainland Sulawesi. A feature of oceanic islands is the lowering of the altitude at which montane communities are found, but a number of changes recorded have been considerably larger than may have been expected.

The occurrence on Buton of the Crimson-crowned Flowerpecker, at elevations of 200-300 m was unexpected as this species is usually found only above 700 m on the mainland and little land exists on Buton above this altitude. This species is, however, extremely localised and uncommon on Buton, and probably represents a declining relict population. The Grey-headed Imperial Pigeon has also been found at considerably lower elevations than on the mainland, although a recent study of Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park found this species at an altitude of only 50 m (Wardill, 1995). Further work needs to be done on the lower latitudinal limits of birds on Buton, especially on some of the endemic species. The occurrence on Buton of other species restricted to 'montane' areas can not be ruled out given the above findings.

Notes were kept during 1995 and 1996 on breeding activities noted during the various expeditions, using the criteria established by the British Trust for Ornithology. Very little information is currently available on the breeding activities and seasonality of many Sulawesi species and it is hoped that the project may be able to provide some useful data. Wherever possible data has also been collected on the type of nests and nest sites used.

The following criteria were used:

· Bird apparently holding a territory.

· Courtship and display; or anxiety call/agitated behaviour of adults indicating the presence of young or a nest.

· Brood patch on trapped birds.

· Adult visiting probable nest site.

· Nest building (including excavating nest hole).

· Distraction display or injury feigning.

· Used nest found.

· Recently fledged young.

· Adult carrying faecal sac or food.

· Adult entering or leaving nest site in circumstances indicating occupied nest (including colonies).

· Nest with eggs found, or bird sitting but not disturbed, or eggshells found near nest.

· Nest with young; or downy young of ducks, gamebirds, waders and other nidifuguos species.

 

A total of 93 records of breeding activity were made during 1996, involving a total of 55 different species. This compares favourably with the 19 records made during the 1995 Bird Survey, involving only 15 different species.

Significant records for 1996 include the Yellow-crested Cockatoo nest, the immature Small Sparrowhawk and the immature Milky Stork. From the scant records it seems evident that a number of small passerine species breed during the drier months from June to November, with records for sunbirds, flowerpeckers and white-eyes occurring throughout this period. Immature and sub-adult munias were also observed throughout this period and this reflects the availability of seeds, particularly rice, during the drier months. Species dependant on fruit, mainly figs, seem to breed later in the dry season (September to November), when fruiting trees are more numerous. Most raptor nests found involved species which specialised in catching fish. No nests were found for forest dependent species although immatures were noted throughout 1996. A list of all breeding records made during 1996 can be found in Appendix 3.

During the 1996 surveys a small number of birds were observed which did not appear to match the descriptions available in the literature. The differences in some of these birds are extremely marked and it is possible that they represent undescribed races or sub-species. Field descriptions were made of all birds which appeared to differ from the existing literature, but more work needs to be done on this during 1997.

A pair of Bazas were observed for some 20 minutes in the large shade trees of a mature cashew nut plantation on the 6/8/96. The description taken below was made by the author and 5 other members of the team. Both birds were observed at distances of 5-30 metres, using 8 x 40 binoculars and a 20-40 x telescope.

Size c.45 cm. Male - head grey including crown as far back as the crest; crest long, black in colour. Nape to mantle brown, streaked black. Back and wings greyish-brown. Uppertail brown with two broad black bands, terminal band white. Chestnut brown breast with no markings; chin and throat browner than breast with dark grey mesial throat stripe. Mesial throat strip edged white. Distinct division between throat and breast. Belly heavily barred white and chestnut; bars continue onto thighs. Ventral area white. Undertail white with single grey band near tip, terminal band white. Underwing; flight feathers greyish-white, underwing-coverts white barred chestnut. The second bird was slightly larger - presumably the female - with a brown head and dark brown 'mask'. Crown brown, crest black; nape and mantle chestnut-brown with black streaks. Back and wings greyish-brown, slightly darker than male. Uppertail brown with black sub-terminal band. Underparts as male, but division between throat and breast not as clear. Mesial throat stripe black, only narrowly edged white. Underwing as male.

No mention is made in the literature of the complete lack of red or yellow colouration on the ventral area of the females found on Buton.

On the 24/9/96 a single bird was observed in a wooded gully beside a dry river-bed. The bird was seen clearly by 4 members of the group at distances of only 2-3 metres. The general description is similar to the nominate form C. f. fallax, but the bird differed in appearing to have no black and blue colouration on the crown and forehead. The bird was observed from the back and from the side, and the colouration of the crown should have been apparent. A second bird observed at the same location (presumably the same bird) on the 17/11/96 did not have any blue or black on the crown, nor did a bird observed in Square 76 on the 12/11/96. The only other sub-species C. f. sangirensis from Sangihe Island (between Sulawesi and the Philippines), has larger and more lustrous blue bars on the crown (Fry et al., 1992).

BROWN-THROATED SUNBIRD Anthrepes malacebsis

Three males were observed on Siumpu Island on the 13/11/96 differing significantly from the males normally encountered on neighbouring Buton. Siumpu birds had bright maroon backs and greater-coverts, not brown as in the Buton birds.

During 1996 a number of incidental observations were made for species which have not been covered in any of the previous sections of this report. A number of these are felt to be important enough to warrant some mention in this report.

Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus : On the 24/9/96 an adult was observed catching seas snakes on the mud-flats in Square 74. During a 5 minute period the bird was seen to catch and eat at least 4 small white/ pale yellow and black banded Sea Crakes of the genus Laticauda. The stork seemed to be extremely wary of the sea snakes and great care was taken in handling and killing the snakes before they were swallowed. Each snake was seized in the middle, and was held in the tip of the bill while being vigorously and repeatedly thrashed from side to side. One two occasions the sea snake was released before the process was repeated. Similar behaviour was noted at the same site on the 5/11/96 when 2 birds were observed catching sea snakes. The only reference to this behaviour is a brief comment in Hancock et al. (1992), which states "In Sulawesi they [Woolly-necked Storks] are said to eat sea snakes". The behaviour has also been observed on Hoga Island, but involved a Great-billed Heron.

Blue-backed Parrot Tanygnathus sumatranus : An unusually coloured bird was seen on the 15/7/96 in forest near La Bundo-Bundo, Square 45. General plumage similar to ordinary Blue-backed Parrot, but differed in having a brownish wash on the breast and neck, plus rufous-brown undertail feathers; the individual had a white bill and iris. The bird was seen clearly in the canopy of a large tree in the company of a pair of Great-billed Parrots. Forshaw describes a similar bird, the Rufous-tailed Parrot Tanygnathus heterurus which is only known from the type specimen (Forshaw, 1989). According to Forshaw this specimen probably represent an aberrant form of T. sumatranus.

Collared Kingfisher Halcyon chloris : A number of individuals were recorded with aberrant plumage. Most individuals differed in the amount and extent of black and greenish-blue on the head; black extending up from mask onto the crown. One bird at Kabowa Bridge, Square 41, had a completely black crown and forehead with an area of white on the hindneck. A bird seen on Hoga Island in the Tukangbesi had a small area of white in the centre of the crown surrounded by black.

Prior to the work carried out by volunteers of Operation Wallacea little interest had been shown in the large islands at the southern tip of the south east peninsula of Sulawesi. This is an extremely remote part of Indonesia which has attracted few visitors and even fewer scientists in recent years. Data collected during the two years of field work (a total of 11 months field work) has shown that the avifauna of Buton Island is diverse, despite the absence of montane communities on the island. The island has been found to have in excess of 230 bird species, including over 50 Sulawesi endemics. The latter includes virtually all of the Sulawesi endemics restricted to lowland habitats, with a few notable exceptions, and a number of endemics which inhabit lower montane environments. Significant populations of many species can be found on Buton, and the island may prove important for the long term survival of certain species. Around 19 threatened and near-threatened species have been recorded from Buton and further work is urgently needed to establish the status of many of these birds. In particular further work needs to be carried out on the Milky Stork, Maleo, Yellow-crested Cockatoo, and the Red-Knobbed Hornbill, as Buton may hold important populations of these birds.

In recent years Buton has been designated as a transmigration site and a number of settlements have already been created in the south and east of the island. These settlements have been responsible for the destruction of large tracts of forest and this process will undoubtedly continue during the next few years. The selection of transmigration sites is very haphazard and a number of sites have been established in, or adjacent to, existing protected areas. Substantial areas of the proposed National Park in the north of the island have already been cleared, and it is uncertain how much forest will survive before the National Park is finally designated. The Operation has, however, been instrumental in stimulating local awareness and interest in conservation issues, and action has already been taken at a local level in a number of locations. Local interest is crucial, as many important areas of forest have only survived due to the actions of local people and officials at village level. Interest show by the officials of the Bupati of southern Buton (local governor), and by the regional Governor of South East Sulawesi, have been especially encouraging, and it is hoped that this interest will result in further actions being taken. The local Bupati has, in particular, been quick to identify the potential benefits from small scale ecotourism and he has been largely responsible for many of the initiatives undertaken to date. Already measures are being implemented to protect the Lake Togomotonu environs and the critically important area around the Maleo breeding sites near Maligano. The work carried out by Operation Wallacea has identified a number of important sites around the island and it is hoped that with the help of local people and officials these areas will be given full protection in the near future. It is also hoped that the results generated by Operation Wallacea will help stimulate further field work in this remote region of Sulawesi, and will provide local people with the incentive to conserve their natural environment.

A taxon is Critically Endangered when it is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future. A critically endangered taxon has a 50% chance of going extinct during the next 5 years (Collar et. al., 1994).

A taxon is endangered when it is not Critical but is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future. An endangered taxon has a 20% chance of going extinct in the next 20 years.

A taxon is Vulnerable when it is not Critical or Endangered but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future. A taxon designated as vulnerable has a 10% chance of going extinct in the next 100 years.

A taxon is Near-threatened when it has been evaluated and does not qualify for an of the categories Critical, Endangered, Vulnerable, Conservation Dependent or Data Deficient, but is close to qualifying for one of the threatened categories.

20/6/96

White-necked Myna - group of 10 adults and fledglings, Maligano, Square 18.

Piping Crow - 2 adults & 1 fledgling; Square 18.

26/6/96

Pacific Swallow - nest found under overhang of house near Labuana; Square 4.

Olive-backed Sunbird - male carrying nesting material into coconut palm; Square 5.

3/7/96

Sulawesi Goshawk - juvenile observed perched in forest tree, Square 18.

9/7/96

White-winged Triller - pair at nest feeding plus brooding 2 downy young; Square 57.

10/7/96

Yellow-crested Cockatoo - 2 birds seen entering nest hole in tree; hole on main trunk some 60 feet up in clump of tree ferns. Site still occupied in November; Square 65.

Sulawesi Hornbill - 5 adults in company of 1 immature; Square 65.

Scaly-breasted Munia - 4 adults with 1 immature; Square 66.

11/7/96

Osprey - pair copulating; Square 68.

Brahminy Kite - pair at nest, nest still occupied in November; Square 68.

12/7/96

Wandering Whistling Duck - mating and pairing displays observed on Lake Togomotonu.

Spotted Whistling Duck - adult with 12 fledglings on Lake Ambuau Square 54.

13/7/96

Black-faced Munia - 9 immature birds observed along roadside, Square 47.

14/7/96

Sulawesi Serpent-Eagle - immature, La Bundo-Bundo, Square 44.

Spot-tailed Goshawk - immature in forest tree, La Bundo-Bundo, Square 44.

Hair-crested Drongo - adult sitting on cup shaped nest, 40 feet above a small track. Nest made of fine fibres, very thin in places (see-through), situated in fork of exposed branch; Square 44.

18/7/96

Chestnut Munia - small group of 5 adults and 4 immature; Square 44.

5/8/96

Sulawesi Hawk-Eagle - two immature birds seen flying along side road; Square 66.

6/8/96

Grey-sided Flowerpecker - adults feeding young at nest; Square 73.

Pale-bellied White-eye - adult feeding young at nest; Square 73.

Black Sunbird - female carrying nesting material; Square 73.

8/8/96

Ashy Woodpecker - pair observed at newly excavated nest hole; Square 66.

14/8/96

Slender-billed Cuckoo-Dove - pair performing courtship display. Male perched beside female, whole body raised and lowered repeatedly, nape and back feathers raised, with repeated soft cooing; Square 68.

19/8/96

Brown-throated Sunbird - female at nest, a hanging ball of grass and leaves in tall bamboo; Square 65.

20/8/96

Asian Glossy Starling - colony collecting nesting material (strips of dried palm fronds and grass), plus building nests in palm trees at bases of palm fronds; Square 49.

Chestnut Munia - mixed flock of >60 adults, sub-adults and immature birds; Square 49.

21/8/96

Woolly-necked Stork - pair searching for possible nest site above forest canopy; Square 50.

Collared Kingfisher - adult feeding young in arboreal termitaria, some 30 feet up forest tree; Square 49.

27/8/96

Common Kingfisher - adult leaving nest hole in soil of upturned tree roots; Square 83.

28/8/96

Brown-throated Sunbird - pair taking food to nest (scruffy ball of fibres and leaves 20m up in forest canopy; Square 13.

Pied Cuckoo-Shrike - pair observed copulating; Square 13.

Pied Bushchat - male carrying food observed entering hole in dead tree; Square 13.

29/8/96

Golden-bellied Gerygone - adult with food at nest in mangrove overhanging water, about 3 metres up; fine pear shaped ball made of fine grass and cobwebs - latter plus grass trailing down beneath the nest; Square 8.

Golden-bellied Gerygone - male displaying to female; throat fluffed out while dancing around the females in tight circles, making a constant faint whistle; Square 8.

Lemon-bellied White-eye - adult incubating in coconut palm; cup of fine twigs and cobwebs just beneath an old palm frond; Square 8.

Lemon-bellied White-eye - nest found in mangrove, 2-3 metres up; Square 8.

2/9/96

Citrine Flycatcher - pair feeding fledgling; Square 66.

Black-naped Oriole - adult carrying nesting material (strips of dried palm leaves); Square 66.

Hair-crested Drongo - pair at nest in canopy, 30-40 feet up; Square 66.

4/9/96

Pink-headed Imperial Pigeon - adult building nest in canopy of tall tree; Square 55.

Sulawesi Hanging-Parrot - female investigating nest tree cavities; Square 55.

8/9/96

Small Sparrowhawk - immature observed being chased by Sulawesi Goshawk; Square 65.

10/9/96

Zebra Dove Species - pair carrying nesting material into isolated tree; Siumpu Island.

12/9/96

Maleo - 4 active breeding sites found; all disturbed; Square 13.

Golden-mantled Racket-tailed Parrot - adult entering and not leaving hole in a clump of tree ferns situated about 50 feet up forest tree; Square 13.

17/9/96

Ruddy Kingfisher - pair observed excavating nest hole in arboreal termitaria on an old tree stump on the edge of a small creek in mangrove; Square 33.

18/9/96

Maleo - pair digging at nest site; Square 13.

Ornate Lory - 2 birds seen entering hole in horizontal branch of dead tree; Square 18.

19/9/96

Maleo - 4 pairs digging at 5th breeding site; Square 13.

Brown-throated Sunbird - pair at nest; small elongated sphere of leaves, grass and cobwebs, situated beneath large leaf at top of small tree; Square 13.

21/9/96

Pied Cuckoo-Shrike - male at nest; Square 55.

White Imperial Pigeon - bird carrying nesting material; Square 55.

22/9/96

Citrine Flycatcher - adult feeding fledgling; Square 66.

Black-naped Fruit-Dove - female on nest; small untidy platform 15-20 feet up on bare branch next to road; Square 66.

23/9/96

White-bellied Sea-Eagle - adult at nest; huge structure of branches situated some 60 feet up a tree on a ridge top, about 0.5 km from the sea; Square 74.

24/9/96

Hair-crested Drongo - adult incubating 2 young and 1 egg; nest situated 20 feet up above path. Bird would quietly leave the nest when approached, returning once disturbance was over. Flimsy cup shaped nest of fine twigs in fork of tree; Square 60.

26/9/96

Red-Knobbed Hornbill - male feeding young at nest hole; situated some 70 feet above ground in same tree as Yellow-crested Cockatoo nest; Square 65.

Olive-backed Sunbird - pair at nest; in dense thicket close to road; Square 67.

14/10/96

Citrine Flycatcher - adult feeding fledgling; Square 65.

16/10/96

Finch-billed Myna - nesting tree with active breeding colony in dead isolated tree; Square 54.

17/10/96

White Imperial Pigeon - pair building nest in canopy of isolated tree on edge of forest; Square 54.

Malaysian Plover - pair with 3 downy chicks on undisturbed beach; Square 55.

18/10/96

Ashy Woodpecker - 2 males drumming on dead tree trunk; Lake Ambuau.

White-breasted Woodswallow - untidy nest of twigs situated in a dead isolated tree in cultivated field. Total of 9 birds seen at the nest together; Lake Ambuau.

22/10/96

Maleo - 26 birds observed at one breeding site: Square 13.

Black-naped Oriole - single bird carrying nesting material; Square 49.

24/10/96

Pacific Swallow - pair feeding 4 fledglings at fish ponds, Maligano; Square 18.

Hair-crested Drongo - pair feeding 2 fledglings; Square 18.

Hair-crested Drongo - adult at nest with at least one chick; Square 18.

Red-Knobbed Hornbill - male feeding young at nest hole in dead tree in forest clearing; Square 18.

Yellow-sided Flowerpecker - adult with 2 fledglings; Square 18.

White-necked Myna - pair at nest hole in dead palm stump; hole 35-40 feet up. One bird entered the hole and did not re-emerge; 2nd bird remained on top of the tree; Square 18.

Black-naped Oriole - adult feeding young at nest in small thickly foliaged tree in coconut plantation. Nest, large hanging cup of fine grasses, situated in leaves in outer branch some 30 feet above the ground; Square 23.

Brown-throated Sunbird - pair feeding 2 young; Square 23.

29/10/96

Lemon-bellied White-eye - mist-netted bird with brood patch; Square 18.

1/11/96

Lesser Fishing-Eagle - pair at nest in huge tree in tiny isolated forest patch adjacent to Lake Ambuau. Huge untidy structure of branches in tree fork some 50-60 feet above ground.

Sulawesi Hanging-Parrot - pair feeding 2 fledglings; Lake Ambuau Square 54.

5/11/96

White-breasted Woodswallow - 3 birds constructing a nest in top of small cashew nut plant, 1.5 metres up adjacent to road; Square 78.

6/11/96

Sulawesi Babbler - mist-netted bird with well developed brood patch; Square 65.

Asian Glossy Starling - 3 adults with immature; Square 65.

7/11/96

White Imperial Pigeon - pair at nest coconut palm; small platform of twigs; Siumpu Island.

11/11/96

White-breasted Woodswallow - nest at top of dead tree trunk, some 40-50 feet up. Single bird observed incubating with 3 attendants. Purple-winged Roller landed briefly on nest but driven off by 4 White-breasted Woodswallows; Square 66.

Ivory-backed Woodswallow - untidy nest of twigs, moss etc. in fork of branch in bare tree about 30 feet up along side road. One bird sitting with 2 perched nearby; Square 66.

13/11/96

Hair-crested Drongo - small cup shaped nest of twigs and fibres in fork of branch 15 feet up tree; Siumpu Island.

14/11/96

Pied Bushchat - nesting in the top of small dead palm tree; Snake Island.

Finch-billed Myna - breeding colony (>100 birds) in dead tree adjacent to road in forest; Square 44.

15/11/96

Blue-backed Parrot - adult feeding one young; La Bundo-Bundo Square 44.

17/11/96

Milky Stork - immature seen in company of 4 adults; Square 74.

19/11/96

Red Knobbed Hornbill - male at nest hole; Square 18.

Finch-billed Myna - colony at nesting trees; Square 18.

Chestnut Munia - mixed flock of adult, sub-adults and immature birds; Square 18.

Orange-footed Scrubfowl - Megapodius reinwardt : 17/11/96 adult scrubfowl seen digging at mound close to marine base. The mound was 5-6 feet high by 10-15 feet across and was situated underneath a thicket.

During the 1996 Bird Surveys most expeditions were able to visit the Kendari Marshes area at the west end of the Kendari Bay, at the end of each trip. The Kendari marshes consist of an extensive area of mangroves and associated brackish marshes, plus adjacent fish ponds and extensive areas of mud-flats. No proper survey of the area was possible, but preliminary results suggest that this site could be of major importance for waders, both resident and migrant.

Some 70 species were recorded during the brief surveys including four threatened and near-threatened species. Of particular interest is the presence of a small population of Milky Storks (around 20 birds), which appear to be resident. Sizeable concentrations of herons, egrets, pond-herons and other waterbirds were present throughout the survey period, and the mangroves were also utilised by a number of species for roosting. Between late August and November significant numbers of waders were present; flocks of several hundred waders were commonly observed in the late afternoon. The whole area is under pressure from various human activities, including clearance for fish ponds and building, and the future of the area is in doubt without some form of protection. Studies of the area are urgently needed to determine the importance of the site for waterbirds and for migrant waders. The University of Kendari is situated adjacent to the site and their participation would be particularly important.

Hoga Island in the Tukangbesi was visited on a regular basis throughout the duration of the 1996 expeditions; most expeditions visiting the island for a day and a half during the middle of the trip. Little recent information is available on the avifauna of the Tukangbesi Islands - the last studies were made at the turn of the century (White & Bruce, 1986). A fairly marked discontinuity exists between Buton and the Tukangbesi Islands. The latter islands lie only c.25 km off the SE coast of Buton, but only one Sulawesi endemic (Grey-sided Flowerpecker Dicaeum celebicum) appears to have reached this small chain of islands. In addition two species (Pacific Baza Aviceda subcristata and Island Monarch Monarcha cinerascens) which are distinctly Australisian and Moluccan in origin do not reach Buton, but are present in the Tukangbesi.

Although not rich, the avifauna of Hoga Island includes a number of interesting species, including at least 4 species which are either difficult to see or do not occur on Buton. The limited number of species recorded from the island reflects the limited range of habitats available and the very small size of the island (c.2 square km). Hoga is a low lying coral island which is covered for the most part in thick scrub and coconut palms, with small patches of scrubby forest. Fig trees are abundant on the island and help explain why many fruit eating species are present. At low tide extensive mud-flats are exposed which attracted large numbers of waders in October and November. The interior of Hoga is practically impenetrable due to the thick undergrowth and the exceptionally rocky nature of the island. The island is thought to support a fairly large population of Orange-footed Scrubfowl, which are known to be resident on the island; 4 breeding mounds were located and a maximum count of 25 birds was made during one visit in October. Both Malaysian Plover and Beach Thick-Knee are resident on the island. A number of small island specialists can be found on the island on occasion, including Blue-tailed Imperial Pigeon and Great-billed Parrot. Interesting migrants recorded from the island include 2 immature Brown Shrikes and a Gray's Grasshopper-Warbler which was caught in a mist-net in October.

Interviews with local people on the nearby island of Wangiwangi (the largest island in the Tukangbesi) were carried out in late November 1996, during a brief wait at Wanci. According to local people there are numerous degraded forest patches remaining on the island, which hold a diverse avifauna. A number of local people were adamant that the Hooded Pitta Pitta sordida was fairly common on the island. This species is only known from N Sulawesi (Lambert, 1996); unconfirmed sightings were made of this species in July 1996 at the N end of Buton.

Operation Wallacea expeditions have not been designed to include surveys of seabirds as this falls largely out-side the scope of the project. Little knowledge exists, however, on the status of seabirds in this area and some mention should be made were applicable. The following notes are taken mainly from the authors own notes and from a report by Clive Viney compiled in November 1995.

During the early months of the 1996 expeditions (between June and mid-August), few seabirds were seen with the exception of small numbers of Frigatebirds and Terns; on some ferry trips between Kendari and Buton only a handful of seabirds were noted. Also during this period voyages to Hoga were remarkable for their almost complete lack of seabirds away from the islands. A dramatic change occurred in late August when large numbers of terns and other pelagic species were noted; especially in the straits between mainland Sulawesi, Wowoni Island and the north end of Buton Island; and around the small rocky islets along the coast of Muna just south of Raha.

Streaked Shearwater Calonectris leucomelas : Single bird seen flying low over the water on the 24/6/96 between Raha and Maligano; another bird seen from the Wanci pier on Wangiwangi Island, Tukangbesi, on the 10/8/96.

Christmas Island Frigatebird Fregata andrewsi : 4 birds seen on the 24/6/96 between Raha and Maligano; just within Square 18. See chapter 6 for details.

Greater Frigatebird Fregata minor : Small numbers of this species were present throughout the 1996 Expeditions. 1 or 2 occasionally seen among F.areil.

Lesser Frigatebird Fregata ariel : By far the commonest sea bird during the early months - June to early September. Large concentrations seen at the north end of Buton, plus between Muna and Buton south of Raha. Several hundred, 250-400, recorded on the 10/11/96 south of Raha.

Little Black Cormorant Phalacrocorax sulcirostris : Not recorded during any sea voyages during 1996; around 30 birds seen off Square 74 in early August. In 1995 a colony of more than 20 were seen on a small islet in the Buton Strait on the 6 November.

Little Pied Cormorant Phalacrocorax melanoleucos : Large colony, 50-80 birds, seen on small islet south of Raha on the 13/10/96; a smaller colony of at least 40 birds were seen on the same islet on the 10/11/96.

Red-footed Booby Sula sula : Small numbers recorded en route to Hoga and Kendari in 1995. Small groups noted between Buton and the Tukangbesi Islands between September and November; nearly all groups noted were heading north. On the 21/10/96, 59 adults and 2 immatures were observed en route to Lasalimu from Hoga.

Brown Booby Sula leucogaster : Several birds seen on route to Kendari in November 1995. Single bird seen near Maligano on the 24/6/96. Several seen during various trips to Hoga Island.

Milky Stork Mycteria cinerea : 4 birds seen flying south along the steep mountainous coastline of the Sulawesi mainland opposite Wowoni Island.

Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus : Pairs or single birds regularly seen along the coastline between mainland Sulawesi and Wowoni, and in the straits near Bau-Bau.

White-bellied Sea-Eagle - Haliaeetus lecogaster : As the last species but more numerous.

Grey Phalarope Phalaropus fulicaria : Recorded in 1995 when 3 tight groups (14, 8 & 3 birds) in winter-plumage were seen en route to Hoga on the 16/11/95 (Viney, 1995). This species has not been previously recorded from Wallacea.

Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropes lobatus : Numerous groups seen from early August onwards in the straits between Muna and Buton; group sizes varied between 5-c.50 birds. All groups observed were heading south. Fewer groups were noted on route to Hoga; all were heading south-east.

Pomarine Skua Stercorarius pomarinus : 2 birds noted on the 16/11/96 en route to Hoga. In 1996 a single bird was seen en route to Hoga in early October.

Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus : Over a hundred birds were seen on a fishing raft close to Hoga on the 16/11/95. Smaller number were observed around Hoga in late 1996.

White-winged Tern Chlidonias leucopterus : Several hundred noted in the straits between Wowoni and Buton between mid-August and late November. Always in the company of Sterna fuscata and S. anaethetus.

Common Tern Sterna hiundo : In November 1995 around 50 birds of the race S. h. longipennis were seen on a raft close to Hoga. Small groups of 2-30 birds were observed off Hoga in late 1996 (October-November). Small numbers seen along the Buton coast on 2 occasions.

Black-naped Tern Sterna sumatrana : Small numbers recorded throughout the 1996 survey; rare at the start of the project, but more common between August and November when groups of 10-20 were often seen, particularly around the small islets south of Raha.

Bridled Tern Sterna anaethetus : During 1996 absent until August when small numbers appeared. From late August onwards large numbers were observed in the straits between mainland Sulawesi, Wowoni and Buton; several hundred were seen at this location in mixed flocks of S. fuscata and Chlidonias leucopterus in early November.

Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata : None seen in 1996 until October. Hundreds seen in the company of S. anaethetus and Chlidonias leucopterus in early November.

Great Crested Tern Sterna bergii : One of the few terns to be present throughout the expeditions. Small numbers seen along most coasts; larger groups 50-100 birds noted in late October and November.

Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis : Small numbers seen throughout the expeditions; far less numerous than S.bergii.

Fairy Tern Gygis alba : Single colony noted in September 1996 on a small rocky islet south of Raha, on Muna. Colony appeared to be breeding in the large mangrove trees; the colony was still present in early November

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