Abstract

1. Introduction 

2. Land Use and Protected Areas on Buton 

    2.1 Land Use Divisions on Buton 

    2.2 Protected Areas on Buton 

3. Initial Results of the Buton Bird Survey 

    3.1 Summary of Results by Square 

    3.2 Common Species 

    3.3 Non-forest Habitats 

4. Threatened & Near-threatened Species

    4.1 Threatened Species 

    4.2 Near-threatened Species 

5. Sulawesi Endemics 

6. Indonesian Endemics 

7. New Species Added to the Buton Bird List During 1996 

8. Unconfirmed Species Suspected of Occurring on Buton     

9. Changes to Altitudinal Ranges of Selected Species 

10. Breeding Activity Recorded During 1996 

11. Possible Undescribed Taxon and Incidental Observations 

    11.1 Possible Undescribed Sub-species 

    11.2 Incidental Notes and Observations 

12. Conclusions 

APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Distribution of Birds Endemic to the Sulawesi Faunal Region. 

Appendix 2 Definition of IUCN Threatened Categories. 

Appendix 3 Breeding Activities Recorded During 1996. 

Appendix 4 Kendari Marshes, Mainland Sulawesi. 

Appendix 5 Checklist of Species Recorded from Hoga. 

Appendix 6 Annotated Checklist of Oceanic Species. 

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Important Sites for Conservation Projects

Table 2 Summary of Squares Surveyed During 1996.

Table 3 Twenty Five Widely Distributed Species.

Table 4 Species Commonly Recorded in Non-forested Habitats.

Table 5 Checklist of Species Recorded from Buton Island.

Table 6 Threatened and Near-threatened Species.

Table 7 Species Added During 1996.

Table 8 Species Recorded from Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park.

Table 9 Comparison of Altitudinal Ranges of Selected Species.

Table 10 Selected Species Recorded from Kendari Marshes.

Table 11 Checklist of Species Recorded on Hoga Island.

REFERENCES

Buton is a hilly island, situated just off the south-east peninsula of Sulawesi, in the Flores Sea. The island is fairly large measuring some 150 km long by between 10 and 30 km across, and reaches an altitude of just over 1100 m. Scientifically Buton is little known and hardly any recent information is available on the avifauna of the island. In June 1995 Operation Wallacea started a three year bird survey of Buton Island designed to produce a detailed bird atlas of the island and help with information needed for future conservation projects. To date 231 bird species have been recorded from Buton Island, the vast majority of which have been added by the expeditions carried out by Operation Wallacea.

In 1995 Buton Island was divided into 85 Squares, using a grid system similar to that utilised by the Ornithological Society of Indonesia. During the 1995 Bird Survey 33 squares were surveyed and a total of 187 bird species were identified. Between June and November 1996 12 different teams of volunteers surveyed 44 squares, including 22 new squares. During the survey a total of 207 species were recorded, including 52 Sulawesi endemics and 9 Indonesian endemics. Most Sulawesi endemics proved both common and widespread with 20 species having been recorded from 50% or more of the Buton squares. It is particularly interesting to note that the 1996 Bird Survey added no less than 35 birds to the Buton list including 5 Sulawesi endemics. Of major conservation importance is the presence of 19 threatened and near-threatened bird species on the island, including two species classified as 'endangered' by Birdlife International - Nordmann's Greenshank and the Yellow-crested Cockatoo.

The land masses of the biologically rich region of Wallacea have been isolated for a long time. Lying between the Sunda Shelf of continental Asia and the Sahul Shelf of Australia the region has developed elements of both Asian and Australian fauna and flora. The regions long isolation has resulted in a very high proportion of endemic species, with Sulawesi, the largest island in the region, having the most important centre of bird endemism in Wallacea. Birdlife International has designated 2 Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs) for Sulawesi, as the island supports 57 restricted range species (birds with a global distribution of <50,000 square km). Sulawesi has strong affinities to the Talaud, Sangihe, Peleng, Banggai and Sula island groups and a number of restricted range species are shared between them. If these 2 additional EBAs are included then the number of restricted range species increases to 98, of which 85 occur on Sulawesi (See Appendix 1).

The aim of the Buton Island Bird Survey is to make a complete inventory of the avifauna of Buton Island and to produce a detailed bird atlas for the island. It is hoped that the results will provide a better understanding of the avifauna of this little known area and will identify key areas for future conservation purposes.

The projects objectives are as follows:

· to systematically record all bird observations made on Buton Island;

· to make detailed notes on, and detailed descriptions of, threatened and restricted-range species observed on Buton;

· to work with local officials and people to help raise their awareness of the importance of birds and the importance of conservation in general;

· to provide data to help with the creation of a National Park at the north end of the island.

 

In order to facilitate this Buton has been divided into a framework of 85 5' (minute) squares - representing 5' latitude by 5' longitude. Each square is roughly 5 miles by 5 miles (Figure 2). During the three year survey it is intended that at least 8 team hours will be spent per square. A similar grid system has been adopted by the Ornithological Society of Indonesia, using larger 10' squares.

Buton Island has been divided into a number of land use categories by the Forestry Department of Indonesia (shown in Figure 3), which are designed to take account of local environmental conditions and potential economic activities that these areas can support. Only certain economic activities are allowed in different land use categories, but this is often difficult or impossible to implement on the ground. A great deal of importance is placed on watershed protection, especially since the introduction of irrigated cultivation systems. Watershed protection has met with varying degrees of success and seems to be largely dependent on the knowledge of local people involved in paddy cultivation. Watersheds around Lawele are extremely well protected and extensive tracts of mature forest can be found on the hills around the settlement. Education programmes on forest conservation are underway on Buton and volunteers were asked to participate in forest conservation talks on a couple of occasions.

Nature Reserve - no activities other than land improvement are allowed and there is no provision for traditional use of the area by the indigenous population.

Protected Forest - protected due to the importance of the forest as a watershed; limited numbers of trees may be felled and allowed to regrow.

Limited Production Forest - coppicing of trees is only allowed.

Prominent Production Forest - areas of full-scale tree felling allowed including the clearing of entire areas, and the replanting of economically important tree species.

Plantation or Cultivation Area - consisting of extensive cultivated fields, paddies, fish ponds and plantations (usually cashew nut or coconut).

4. Settlement with Mixed Cultivation - consists of areas with villages and towns and the surrounding fields containing various crops believed to be cultivated primarily for subsistence.

A number of protected areas already exist on Buton and a National Park, at the northern end of the island, is currently awaiting designation by the relevant ministry. Currently only two types of protected area exist on Buton - Protected Forest and Nature Reserves - but neither category is sufficient to guarantee protection. The present out-of-date legislation provides little protection for conservation areas from competing land-uses; for example, legislation provides protection for wildlife in game reserves, but does not provide protection for habitats, which means that timber concessions may be legally granted in these reserves at the discretion of the Director-General of Forestry. Nature Reserves are in theory fully protected, but this is often overlooked by local officials. Lack of consultation between the powerful Transmigration Ministry and ministries connected with the protection of forests and other natural resources is a major problem, which has often resulted in the establishment of transmigration sites within 'protected areas'.

There is (or was) a large area of protected forest in the north of Buton which is believed to contain primary or at least mature secondary forest. This area is due to be designated as a National Park, but legislation has still not been passed and the conservation value of this site is rapidly diminishing. Currently the protected forest is afforded little if any protection as a large transmigration site has been established in the area centred around the settlement of Ronta (Square 15). Aerial surveys have shown that the forests in Squares 15, 16, 20, 24 and 25 have already been devastated and that substantial tracts have been felled in adjacent squares. Large areas of untouched forest still exist, but these are increasingly restricted to steeper slopes and rougher terrain, particularly in Squares 6, 9, 10, 11 and 14. If action is not taken immediately to designate what remains of the "protected forest" as a National Park, then the future conservation value of the area will be irreversibly damaged.

A number of protected forests and nature reserves already exist in the south of Buton. The largest nature reserve is centred on Square 51, but it is currently not known whether this reserve is sufficiently large enough to be of optimal benefit to wildlife. Major land-use changes may need to be implemented and the extension of existing protected areas into adjacent areas of 'production forest' is strongly recommended. Results of surveys in the south of Buton have highlighted the importance of a number of forests, many of which are comparatively small. These forests are often close to centres of habitation and have survived due to the efforts of local village headmen and forest wardens. Due to their close proximity to both villages and road networks, these forests could play a vital role in the development of ecotourism initiatives. These sites are also ideally placed for the implementation of community based conservation projects which could be designed to involve local people, particularly school children, in conservation activities.

Initial results from the 1995 and 1996 bird surveys of Buton Island have been extremely encouraging with 229 species (231 if old records are included) so far having been recorded, including 52 Sulawesi endemics (this figure includes species restricted to Sulawesi and adjacent islands) and 9 Indonesian endemics. Prior to the Operation Wallacea Expeditions little ornithological interest had been shown in the island, and the total number of birds recorded from Buton stood at only 78, including just 24 Sulawesi endemics. One early expedition to Buton described the island as extensively deforested, being covered with dry savanna and grasslands (van Bemmel & Voous, 1951), while the avifauna was described as being impoverished Sulawesian - the number of endemics being limited by the degraded environment. Early habitat assessments of Buton have proved misleading, as while parts of the south have been heavily degraded, much of the island is still covered by forest, especially in the north of the island. Much of the forest is secondary, at various stages of development, but extensive areas of old secondary and/or primary forest exists in the north of the island.

Despite two years of field work carried out on Buton the avifauna is still comparatively little known and the species list for the island is by no-means complete - 35 species were added to the list during the 1996 Survey (3 species were only present on Siumpu and Snake Islands), including 5 endemics. Many of the Sulawesi endemics identified on the island are common and widespread, with 20 species having been recorded from more than 50% of the squares surveyed during 1996. Of major conservation importance is the presence of 19 threatened or near-threatened species on the island, including two species classified as 'endangered' by Birdlife International and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

A total of 56 squares have been surveyed out of a total of 85, plus the additional sites of Siumpu and Snake Islands which are situated to the south west of Buton. Of the 56 squares surveyed to date, 28 squares have had less than 8 hours of survey time spent on them, while a further 29 squares have never been surveyed. The latter include some of the most inaccessible areas on the island. The aim of the 1997 Survey will be to attempt to survey as many of the unknown squares as possible and to increase the survey times for those squares with minimal coverage. The main difficulty encountered during the previous two years has been accessibility with many areas, particularly in the north, being cut off due to washed away roads and bridges. Road improvements were in progress at the end of 1996 and it is hoped that this will help alleviate the problem. Due to problems with accessibility substantially more time was spent in some squares compared with others during 1996 (see Table 2). To some extent this has been exacerbated by the presence of permanent count sites in 6 of these squares. Permanent count sites were created in 1995 in order to provide data on important sites for conservation, and in order to encourage and promote awareness among local people. These sites also provide volunteers with an opportunity of viewing a wide range of birds.

Permanent Count Sites include:

1. Lake Togomotonu - Square 55.

2. Lowland forest near the Maleo breeding site at Maligano - Square 13.

3. Hill and lowland forest around La Bundo-Bundo - Squares 44 & 45.

4. Forest valley behind Bau-Bau used for training purposes by all groups - Square 66.

5. Cockatoo breeding site outside Bau-Bau - Square 65.

Detailed summaries of all surveys carried out during 1996 (by square) can be found in Appendix 8 at the back of this report. An assessment of species diversity per square, is extremely difficult to make given the uneven coverage of squares during both 1995 and 1996. As a general rule the more time spent in a square the greater the recorded diversity of the avifauna, although the type and variety of habitats present also play a crucial role in species diversity. During 1996 six squares were identified as having a particularly diverse avifauna, with each square having 90 species or more recorded within its boundaries - Squares 13, 18, 44, 45, 49 and 55 (see Table 2). If the 1995 results are included then the number of squares with 90 species or more recorded increases to eight (additional squares include Squares 44 & 65). The presence of large tracts of forest appeared to be particularly important in explaining the distribution of Sulawesi endemics and 10 squares were found to have 30 or more Sulawesi endemics present. Not surprisingly all sites, with the exception of Lake Togomotonu, identified as having particular conservation importance are forest sites and it is hoped that most of these forests will be given protection by local officials. No results are available for Trip 9 (28/9/96 to 11/10/96), although interesting records have been included wherever relevant.

Many species proved common, even abundant, and widespread, occupying a wide range of habitat types. As would be expected birds were more abundant in forested or wooded locations especially in areas where forest bordered other mixed habitats. Squares with a wide range of habitat types, both natural and modified, also contained a diverse avifauna - Square 18 being a case in point (141 species recorded during 2 years of field work). Of the 25 most widely distributed species (species occurring in 70% or more of Squares surveyed in 1996), 16 occur widely in adjacent parts of Indonesia and South East Asia, while only 9 are endemic to Sulawesi (Table 3). All species frequented a wide range of habitats including in some cases heavily degraded or modified habitats. It is interesting to note that with the exception of the ubiquitous Sulawesi Babbler, all the Sulawesi endemics appear to be dependant on forested or wooded habitats, including forest patches.

* - Occurrence of species in all squares surveyed in 1996

Climax vegetation on Buton is tropical forest, and as would be expected this is the single most important habitat on the island. Deforestation in recent years has greatly reduced the amount of forest habitat available and this habitat will continue to shrink or even disappear in many areas over the next few years.

* - Species closely associated with forest patches or plantations

A variety of new ecological niches have become available with the clearance and alteration of forest environments, but many of these have not been fully utilised by resident species. A range of new habitats have been created including; grasslands, scrubby savanna, cultivation (including paddy rice), plantations (mainly cashew nut and coconut), plus degraded forest patches. Many areas of Buton, especially in the south, have been cleared repeatedly over a long period of time, resulting in the development of dry scrubby savanna dominated by alang alang grass (Imperata species), Lantana camara and other introduced shrubby species. Large areas of southern Buton are now covered in dense impenetrable thickets.

The avifauna of these modified 'non-forest' habitats is highly impoverished, although a few species are largely dependent on these habitat types. Some 30 species are regularly seen in degraded habitats on Buton, the vast majority of which are commonly found throughout Indonesia and South East Asia (Table 4). Of particular interest is the absence of most Sulawesi endemics, with the exception of the Sulawesi Babbler, from these habitats. Most other Sulawesi endemics found in open habitats are usually associated with remaining patches of forest, or have entered the environment in order to utilise a readily available source of food. Many of the species found in open habitats are surprisingly localised and even uncommon, despite the abundance of suitable habitat - this is true of the Spotted Kestrel, Pied Bushchat and both Cisticolas. This seems to suggest that many species have not had the opportunity to colonise these open habitats, although this will undoubtedly change with time.

The cultivation of rice in irrigated fields on Buton has had a significant impact on waterbirds and waders on the island. Natural freshwater habitats are extremely scarce on Buton, although seasonally flooded areas were previously fairly extensive, prior to the development of transmigration settlements, around the small lakes of Togomotonu and Ambuau, near Lasalimu. The introduction of irrigation schemes and paddy rice cultivation to Buton has resulted in a dramatic increase in the availability of freshwater habitats on the island, although waterbirds seem to have been relatively slow in colonising these habitats. Comparatively few waterbirds were noted during the 1995 Survey away from the vicinity of the two lakes. During 1996 a number of waterbirds were recorded from irrigated rice fields, and it seems likely that numbers will continue to increase. Species regularly noted include Intermediate Egrets Egreta intermedia, Little Egrets E. garzetta, Woolly-necked Storks Ciconia episcopus, Sunda Teal Anas gibberifrons, Buff-banded Rail Gallirallus philippensis, Barred Rail G. torquatus and White-browed Crake Porzana cinerea. Two species, Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus and Javan Pond-Heron Ardeola speciosa, proved to be unexpectedly uncommon in irrigated paddy fields. The latter is abundant on mainland Sulawesi around Kendari, but only small numbers have been encountered to date. Large numbers of migrant waders were attracted to unplanted rice fields between August and November, and these habitats may become important for them in the future. Small seed-eating finches have benefited greatly from the introduction of wet rice cultivation and Chestnut Munias Lonchura malacca are now locally abundant. Important irrigation schemes exist in Squares 45, 49, 55 and 57, and further schemes are under construction. Waterbirds and waders have also adapted readily to the construction of fish ponds around the coast.

The two lakes, unfortunately, have not fared well in recent years due to encroachment of agriculture, and in the case of Lake Ambuau the building of a substantial irrigation ditch. The latter site will probably not survive, but Lake Togomotonu remains an important site for many species. A programme has been agreed with local officials to improve the conservation of Lake Togomotonu and its environs, and it is hoped that this will be sufficient to protect and develop this important Buton site.

A total of 19 threatened and near-threatened species have been recorded from Buton, including two species classified by IUCN (see Appendix 2) as endangered. For an island as small as Buton this represents a very significant total, and Buton could prove to be important for the conservation of some of these species. With the exception of 4 migrant and/or vagrant species (Asian Darter, Nordmann's Greenshank, Bristle-thighed Curlew and Far-Eastern Curlew), all threatened and near-threatened species are thought to be resident. Many of the Sulawesi endemics included within this group are very poorly known, and their status may change when data becomes more readily available.

* - probable reocrd

** - unconfirmed record

A number of factors are adversely affecting the status of many of the threatened or near-threatened species on Buton. In recent years large scale transmigration settlements have been established in the south and east of the island which has resulted in widespread forest destruction. Little importance is often placed on protected areas of forest and a number of transmigration sites have been established in existing forest reserves - the settlement near Lake Togomotonu is a case in point. The huge transmigration settlements in the NE of the island around Ronta have been especially devastating with large areas of old secondary and/or primary forest being clear-felled. Little work seems to be done to determine whether the sites are suitable for agriculture, and many areas have exceptionally poor soils which are often completely dominated by large coral outcrops and crevices. At the present rate of destruction it is doubtful whether much forest will survive, except on the higher and steeper slopes. Methods of timber extraction for local consumption are extremely wasteful and little effort is made to regulate this activity.

The trapping of birds for pets by local people is a major problem on the island, and the population of one parrot species has already declined dramatically. Parrots are the most commonly captured birds, but white-eyes, imperial pigeons and even rails have been observed in captivity. Hunting of birds for food is not currently widespread on Buton, although there are signs that this is changing due to the arrival of transmigrants from Java and elsewhere. Snares are regularly set for Bear Cuscus Phalanger ursinus and the local form of the Booted Macaque Macaca ochreata brunnescens, and birds are occasionally caught; species found dead in snares include Red-Knobbed Hornbills, Fiery-billed Malkoha and Bay Coucal. At present the only species which seems to be suffering from hunting and the collection of eggs is the Maleo.

The total world population of these waders is thought to number c.1000, all of which breed in eastern Russia and winter in SE Asia. Not previously recorded from Wallacea, although there is a record from N Borneo, and up to 21 birds have been seen in SE Sumatra (Collar et al., 1994). Two birds were recorded from Buton during 1996; a single bird seen in fish ponds at Karing Karing on the 22/10/96 (poor photograph taken); a second bird was seen well on a beach in Square 74 on the 5/11/96. At least one, possibly three, Nordmann's Greenshanks were also recorded from fish ponds at Kendari on the 9/11/96. The number of records may indicate that the species winters more regularly in SE Sulawesi.

According to a recently completed status assessment by Birdlife International and the Indonesian Department of Nature Conservation (PHPA), populations of the Yellow-crested Cockatoo have crashed since the 1970s (Poole, 1996). The subspecies sulphura is known to have vanished from many parts of Sulawesi and the largest known population, in the Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, numbers only c.150 birds.

C.s.sulphura is an uncommon and evidently localised species on Buton, which appears to occur predominantly in the south of the island. Associated with forest, including degraded forest, where it is encountered in pairs and small groups of up to 9 birds. A total of 34 birds were recorded in 1996 from 9 squares, all in the south of the island; in 1995 19 birds were recorded from 4 squares, including the only northern record - 5 birds seen near Maligano. Fairly large areas of Buton have still to be surveyed, including extensive areas of lowland forest, and more birds may yet be found. The total Buton population of this species is probably between 50-100 birds, but numbers are decreasing due to trapping and the species is under enormous pressure. Cockatoos are still widely trapped for the pet trade despite being fully protected by Indonesian law. During a visit in November by volunteers to the only known breeding site, just outside of Bau-Bau, 2 birds were shot and injured by local trappers; both birds are now in captivity at the local police station. A number of captive cockatoos were seen throughout the island, all trapped locally. This species is readily available in the bird markets at Kendari, where birds are offered for US$50.00.

Recent studies have indicated a world population of less than c.6000 birds with the bulk of the population breeding in Indonesia; c.5000 birds occur on Sumatra (Collar, 1994). Only recently found in south Sulawesi where a small resident population is thought to occur; small numbers occur in S Sulawesi and a larger population occurs in SE Sulawesi including c.100 birds from Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park (Wardill, 1995). Breeding has not yet been proved from Sulawesi, although there are reports of immature birds from various locations. Milky Storks are especially associated with coastal mangrove swamps, but also utilise other aquatic habitats, including fish ponds, lakes, marshes, tidal flats, saline pools and are occasionally known to visit rice fields (Hancock, 1992).

Not previously recorded from Buton, but known to occur in the mangroves between mainland Sulawesi and Muna (Wardill, 1995). Records from Buton include a single bird at Lake Ambuau, 2/11/96; 21 birds in a large isolated mangrove tree in Square 78, 5/11/96; & 4 adults and an immature in Square 74, 17/11/96. A sighting, at distance, of a very large all white bird in mangroves in Square 8 on the 25/6/96 was probably this species. Urgent surveys are needed to determine the status of this stork on Buton and to establish whether the species breeds locally. The record of an immature from Buton may indicate that the species breeds locally, although birds are known to disperse widely after breeding.

The Maleo is endemic to Sulawesi where it inhabits lowland and hill forest to 1,200m. The remaining population is still thought to be quite large, but the species is vulnerable as it lays communally in traditional nesting grounds (Collar, 1994). Only 85 nesting grounds are known, but 22 have already been abandoned and others are under severe threat.

On Buton, Maleo have only been recorded from 2 squares in the north of the island near Maligano, and 5 breeding sites have been found along a 1.5 km stretch of river north of Maligano. The sites are currently surrounded by mature secondary forest, which at the end of the 1996 Survey was being selectively logged. A transmigration site has been established within 0.5 km of the Maleo sites and the logging of large trees is well underway. All breeding sites suffer from severe disturbance with trees being cut within metres of some sites; the river itself is used for transporting cut timber and loggers are known to collect eggs. Only one breeding site is regularly used with a maximum count of 26 Maleos made in late October. The nest grounds are found along a small stretch of river with thick black deposits of river sand; further upstream the banks become rocky and are thus unsuitable for nesting. No other rivers appear to be suitable on Buton. The Maleo breeding sites must be regarded as severely threatened and immediate action must be taken to eliminate disturbance and protect the surrounding forest. The Governor of SE Sulawesi has expressed an interest in the Maleo sites on Buton, and has asked officials to take action to protect the site.

According to Collar (1992) the Snoring Rail appears to be genuinely rare and may be vulnerable to deforestation, although its elusive habits may account to some extent for the paucity of records. This flightless rail is known from only 11 specimens and 4 sightings made betweeen 1983 and 1992 (del Hoyo, 1996).

A rare and localised rail which is more readily heard than seen. Two birds were observed in an area of swampy thicket close to a main road and an area of lowland forest. Other birds recorded during the 1996 Survey frequented areas of wet lowland forest with dense understories of rattans. Also heard in thick secondary growth and adjacent thick growth of grasses and bushes. Generally encountered, or heard, singly or in pairs. Voice is a distinctive rather quite call ee-orrrr, lasting 1-2 seconds - a very brief wheeze followed by a longer snoring noise, also brief, quiet, deep sigh hmmmm (de Hoyo, 1996). Thought to eat crabs and lizards caught along forest streams. Some of the earlier records of this species are extremely questionable, in particular reports of large groups made during 1995; these records almost certainly refer to the widespread Buff-banded Rail Gallirallus philippensis.

A description of a single bird recorded on the 7/11/96 at Wakalambe fish ponds seems to fit this species. A second bird, also fitting the description of this curlew, was recorded in Kendari the following day. If confirmed these records would represent a dramatic extension to the recorded range of this species; previously known to winter only in the islands of the central Pacific, as far west as Micronesia. These records will undoubtedly represent vagrants, although it is possible that small numbers of this species occur more regularly in the region.

Until recently this nightjar was only definitely known from the type specimen, collected at 250 m in forest on the Minahassa peninsula, although a number of unidentified calls heard elsewhere on Sulawesi have been attributed to this species (White & Bruce, 1986). The Satanic Nightjar was rediscovered in May 1996 when 4 birds were seen at two sites in the Lore Lindu National Park in C Sulawesi (N. Cleere in litt. 1996). A description provided by Cleere is as follows: length c.25 cm, wing length 202 mm; there is a small white spot on the third and fourth outer primaries, situated approximately half way along the outer wing; the male has a prominent white marking around the throat, buffish in the female.

A number of unidentified nightjars, most probably this species, have been observed at altitudes of between c250-c.280 m in secondary forest in the hills above Maligano. All birds observed flew off into the understory of the forest when disturbed. Tape recordings of this species were obtained, but birds did not respond well to play backs of their calls and were thus not caught in mist-nets. A bird was observed calling from the upper branches of a large tree adjacent to the forest road, the call resembles tock-tock. In 1995 a call similar to this was heard in Square 45. A bird observed on the 3/7/96 at close quarters during the middle of the day was dark chocolate brown above with little or no apparent markings. The tail in particular appeared unmarked. At the base of the primary feathers was a small conspicuous white spot. The nightjar was fairly small in size, measuring c.20 cm. The bird had been flushed from its roost in a small clearing caused by a fallen tree, alongside a forest road.

Only recorded during the 1995 survey when 1 bird was sighted. Little suitable habitat exists on Buton for this species and the record probably represents a vagrant from the swamps around Aopa in SE Sulawesi, where this species is reasonably common (Wardill, 1995).

An uncommon and localised species which is restricted to less disturbed stretches of coast. During 1996 this huge heron was only recorded from 4 squares (plus two further squares in the north) with a maximum count of 3 birds. This species was also recorded from Snake Island SW of Buton. During a boat trip between Maligano and Labuana in June 1996, only 6 birds were recorded, suggesting that this species is uncommon even along relatively undisturbed stretches of coast. On Hoga Island in the Tukangbesi individual birds were repeatedly seen catching Sea Crakes of the genus Laticauda. The sea snake was caught in the tip of the bill and then carried away from the pools of water onto dry ground before being shaken vigorously. On a couple of occasions the snake was washed repeatedly in a pool before being swallowed.

A very uncommon and elusive raptor, which was recorded from only 4 squares during 1996. Generally encountered in pairs along the forest edge or in forest clearings, usually during the early morning. Some confusion exists as to the taxonomic status of the birds on Buton Island as a description of a pair observed for some 20 minutes in August 1996 does not agree with any of the literature available. It is possible that the birds on Buton represent a distinct and previously undescribed race of this species (see Chapter 10 for a full description). During the 1995 Survey this species was found to be fairly widespread and it is possible that birds were overlooked during the 1996 Survey. However, this species is probably uncommon throughout Buton and further studies are needed to establish its status.

Recorded from 6, widely distributed, squares during the 1996 Survey. All records were from forested rivers and streams, except for the pair around the two lakes. The latter pair were frequently encountered (generally singly) fishing over Lake Togomotonu, and were found to be nesting in a huge isolated tree next to nearby Lake Ambuau in November. The latter site is under enormous pressure from encroaching agriculture and a newly built irrigation ditch, and it is doubtful whether this site will survive. Probably fairly widespread along remaining suitable forested rivers, although lowland habitats are disappearing rapidly due to clearance for agriculture.

Only recorded on three occasions during the 1996 Survey; all records coming from coastal areas. Two birds observed flying along the coast; one near Maligano in Square 13 and the second bird south of Bau-Bau in Square 70. The third bird was perched in a dead mangrove tree above a fish pond at Karing Karing (Square 49) and was seen clearly by all members of the group. Positively identified in 1995 at Lakes Togomotonu and Ambuau (Square 55 and Square 54 respectively). An undoubtedly uncommon and localised raptor on Buton which is easily confused with the more common and widespread I. humilis.

Practically impossible to distinguish from A. rhodogaster in adult plumage unless seen well. Juveniles, however, are easily identified and can not be confused with any other species. A rare species on Buton with records from only 16% of squares survey in 1996. Apparently confined to areas of old secondary growth or primary forest. Recorded from near sea-level, and thus not confined to montane forest as previously thought.

A juvenile found on the 8/9/96 was repeatedly chased by an adult Sulawesi Goshawk for some 5 minutes. The juvenile eventually flew off into thicker forest leaving the adult Sulawesi Goshawk, which proceeded to call loudly for 2-3 minutes.

An uncommon and infrequently seen raptor, usually seen soaring above forest or the forest edge. Juveniles were more frequently encountered than adults during 1996.

Interesting observations include: an adult bird being mobbed by a pair of Piping Crows and a pair of Hair-crested Drongos. The bird was chased into the mid-canopy of a small tree above a forest track, and was observed to have a large fruit bat in its talons. The bird was startled by the observers and flew off, with the bat tightly clutched in its talons, still being mobbed. A second incident involved a juvenile being chased by a pair of Yellow-crested Cockatoos and a single White Imperial Pigeon in late September. The juvenile making a half hearted attempt to catch one of the cockatoos before flying off over the tree tops. In early September a sub-adult was sighted watching a Yellow-crested Cockatoo nest hole. The pair of cockatoos were extremely agitated, one bird repeatedly dive-bombing the raptor, while the second bird screamed continuously from nearby. After 10 minutes the eagle flew over to the nest tree landing on a large branch some 15 feet from the nest. Both cockatoos immediately flew at the raptor screeching loudly, before veering away at the last minute. They continued to fly around the tree screeching for 2-3 minutes before flying off. After 4-5 minutes the eagle flew away, returning after 3 minutes and flying low over the nest tree. At the same time the pair of cockatoos arrived back with a third individual, and gave chase. The cockatoos returned to the nest tree, but seemed wary about approaching the nest hole.

A very elusive, but probably widespread species in the remaining forests of Buton. There were only two definite records of this species during 1996; one bird seen in July near La Bundo-Bundo Square 45 and a second bird seen in September in Square 50. Both sites consist of good secondary forest. A single bird was recorded from Square 44 in 1995. According to local people this species is occasionally caught for food using snares.

A very uncommon and highly localised plover which seems to be confined to undisturbed or little disturbed sandy beaches. There is only one record from Buton of a pair and three young on a rarely used stretch of beach in Square 55. According to local people this beach is also used by nesting turtles; turtle eggs are collected by local people in November. Other records for this species include a pair on Hoga Island in the Tukangbesi, and a pair from Snake Island SW of Buton. This species may occur on other beaches around Buton, but the total population is likely to be very small; all populations are at risk from disturbance, and this species is undoubtedly threatened on Buton.

Only recorded during the 1995 survey when 2 birds were observed in Square 56. During the 1996 survey 2 birds were recorded from the Kendari mudflats and adjacent fish ponds in mid-November. It is possible that small numbers of this species occur during passage on Buton. Extensive areas of mudflats exist in NE Buton near Ronta, which could hold significant populations of waders during certain periods of the year.

An uncommon species which is confined to areas of forest, particularly more mature forest, and forest edge. Usually in small groups of 4-5 birds. A nest found in late September was in a tall isolated tree overhanging a small track. The nest was placed in the fork of a bare branch some 45 feet up, and consisted of a small cup of very fine twigs, grass and cobwebs. A male was observed repairing the nest with cobwebs, and was later seen incubating. Pair observed copulating in late August. Not seen in company with the next species, and rarely common wherever the latter occurs.

Very uncommon, elusive and easily overlooked species which is only known from three sites. Inhabits the leaf litter of mature secondary forest with little undergrowth. Birds observed rarely perched in the lower branches of undergrowth bushes. Buton birds appear to differ from mainland birds having different facial markings - face all black with with greyish-white area behind the eye, white ear-coverts and a short white malar stripe. It is possible that this represents an underscribed subspecies (see Chapter 10 for full details).

A common species which is largely confined to forested or well wooded areas; more rarely found in thick scrubby vegetation close to patches of forest. Found in pairs or small family parties. Pale-bellied White-eyes have typical white-eye habits and song. Often found in the canopy of tall forest trees, but most commonly observed in the understory and thickets along the forest edge. On two occasions this species was found to join bird parties. Unlikely to be threatened in the future as long as some forest, even degraded, remains. A nest found in early August was placed in a low bush a few metres from a main road; the nest was an untidy cup of grasses. The Pale-bellied White-eye is the only Sulawesi endemic to be restricted to the South East Peninsula of Sulawesi, and thus has a tiny global distribution.

A total of 52 Sulawesi endemics have been identified from Buton. Many of these endemics have proved to be common and widespread with 20 species occurring in 50% or more of the squares surveyed during 1996. A number of endemics have, however, proved extremely rare and/or elusive despite the availability of seemingly suitable habitat. Very little data is available for many of the Sulawesi endemics and effort was made to collect information on the status and behaviour of all endemic species encountered during the surveys. The information presented below represents the findings of the project to date, and has been compiled using the survey records and additional notes made by the author during 5 months of fieldwork in 1996. It is interesting to note that endemic species represented c.40% of birds recorded during all surveys in forested or wooded environments. Surveys conducted in more open and degraded habitats, however, had far fewer Sulawesi endemics, indicating that most endemics are unable to adapt to heavily degraded habitats.

Common throughout Buton, preferring the edges of forest and areas of secondary growth, but also inhabiting the interior of dense forest. Regularly observed sitting motionless on both exposed and concealed perches in the mid canopy. A vocal raptor which calls regularly when perched and while soaring above the forest. Appears to be able to tolerate human disturbance and habitat alteration, and is currently not under pressure.

An uncommon and presumably localised species with few records from mature secondary forest and forest edge. Possibly commoner and more widespread in remaining areas of forest than records indicate, as birds are easily overlooked. Single birds usually encountered sitting quietly in the mid canopy of tall forest trees. Juvenile recorded in late June. An adult was observed chasing off a juvenile Small Sparrowhawk on the 8/9/96.

The commonest accipiter on Buton with records from 45% of the squares surveyed during 1996. Found to occupy a wide range of forest and wooded habitats, including primary and mature secondary forest, forest edge, mangrove forest, mature plantations, and areas of scrubby growth with forest patches. Keeps mainly to thicker cover, but will cross open country between forest patches. A highly vocal species which readily draws attention to itself once the call is learnt. Probably found throughout much of Buton, wherever forest and forest patches remain. Two pairs and a juvenile were recorded from the same small patch of dry forest near Bau-Bau in mid-October.

See Chapter 4 for details.

Readily confused with A. nanus and almost impossible to identify with confidence unless in juvenile plumage. Records from Buton suggest that this species inhabits more open secondary forest and areas of forest edge, and is thus unlikely to compete with the smaller A. nanus. On one occasion observed flying in the open in pursuit of a small bird.

See Chapter 4 for details.

See Chapter 4 for details.

See Chapter 4 for details.

An uncommon and elusive bird with only a handful of records from widely scattered parts of the island. Found in a wide range of habitats, including marshy areas adjacent to streams and areas of dry rank vegetation of grass and scrub well away from water. A bird walking across a dirt road only feet away from a group of volunteers was unconcerned by their presence. The bird continued to walk slowly across the road before entering thick dry scrub where it disappeared. Probably widespread on the island in small numbers. Observed foraging along vehicle tracks in areas of rank grass, and in thick aquatic vegetation exposed by the receding water at Lake Togomotonu. Generally encountered singly or in pairs. A highly vocal bird at times producing a loud, striking, discordant call ending with a loud, clear tak-tak-tak; most often heard at dusk.

A generally uncommon to locally common species frequenting areas of forest, secondary forest and forest edge. A vocal bird which is easily recognised by its call - reminiscent of a European Cuckoo. Observed feed in small flocks on small orange figs in the mid and upper canopy, and also on small unidentified fruits of a small bush in overgrown cultivation next to Lake Togomotonu. A quiet and unobtrusive bird when feeding. Occasionally seen walking along dirt roads in overgrown plantations and on the forest edge. A mostly shy species which keeps to cover and is difficult to approach, flying off at great speed through the trees; a very agile flyer.

Very rare on Buton with only four records during 1995 and 1996. Two records, 4 birds seen on the 14/10/95 and 1 bird on the 1/8/96, are from an area of old secondary forest adjacent to the Maleo breeding sites near Maligano (Square 13). There are also two records of single birds recorded from Square 18 in early October 1995. No other birds have been encountered despite repeated searches in seemingly suitable habitat. On the mainland it is common, but can be difficult to locate keeping to dense foliage in tall trees.

A beautiful species which is usually extremely difficult to observe, keeping to dense cover in the forest canopy. Generally noted in small flocks or singly, especially at dusk when they congregate to roost. In early August a flock of more than 30 birds was observed feeding in a huge fig tree in the early morning. A highly localised pigeon with records from only 7 squares. Appears to favour areas of hill forest, but has been recorded down to 60 m. Never found away from dense forest and could suffer from deforestation in the long term.

The rarest and most localised of all the resident imperial pigeons, being recorded from just 3 squares. Records suggest that it is restricted to areas of mature secondary forest in hilly locations. Encountered singly or in small groups in the canopy of forest trees. Probably threatened on Buton if forest destruction continues.

Common to locally abundant, especially in areas with fruiting fig and palm trees. In common with other imperial pigeons this species wanders widely in-search of fruiting trees. During 1996 recorded from 68% of squares surveyed. Inhabits forest, forest edge, mangroves and areas of degraded woodland, wherever there are fruiting trees present.

An aggressive species which often shows aggression towards its own kind and other species. On the 28/8/96 a single bird was viewed in a fruiting palm tree repeatedly chasing a group of 3 White Imperial Pigeons, 2 Pink-headed Imperial Pigeons and a Slender-billed Crow. All six birds finally left the tree after being repeatedly chased for 3-5 minutes. Large flocks of this species were observed at dusk flying over the hills north of Maligano towards a large area of mangrove forest, presumably to roost. Nesting activity was recorded in September and November.

An incredibly beautiful lory which is common throughout Buton wherever there are flowering trees and patches of forest. Most often seen in areas of more open woodland, secondary growth, forest edge and coconut plantations. Regularly attracted to red-flowering trees along the sea-shore. A popular and commonly kept pet in most villages throughout Buton; populations must ultimately suffer as there is no regulation of the numbers caught.

A highly localised and very rare species with only a handful of records from areas of hill forest. Appears to be confined to areas of mature forest, and is never seen in the open. On mainland Sulawesi this species is shy and elusive, which could help explain the paucity of records on Buton. On mainland Sulawesi this parrot is confined to areas of hill and mountain forest, but it seems that mature forest not altitude is the limiting factor in the distribution of this species. Threatened by forest clearance on Buton.

The commonest of the two hanging-parrot species which is regularly met with around habitation, especially in coconut plantations. Birds are frequently attracted to flower trees in more open country. Inhabits a wide range of forest and wooded environments including dense forest and mangrove forest. With care it is possible to identify this species in flight once the general size and call have been recognised. Hanging-Parrots are not commonly kept as pets and only two birds were seen in captivity during 1996. Breeding has been recorded in early November - a pair feeding 2 juveniles on the 1/11/96.

Less common than L. stigmatus, being found in smaller numbers and in fewer locations around the island. This species appears to be restricted to more forested habitats than L. stigmatus, where it keeps to the canopy. Repeatedly confused with L. stigmatus during the early stages of 1996 - all Hanging-Parrots without red crowns were attributed to the latter despite the fact that juvenile and female Sulawesi Hanging-Parrots often have little or no red on the crown. It is thus inevitable that earlier records for this species are erroneous and misleading.

A locally common even abundant species, frequenting areas of forest, especially in hilly areas. In one forest in the hills above Maligano over 150 birds where observed in the late afternoon flying high overhead in small (4 - 7 birds) lose flocks. Almost all birds were flying in a northerly direction presumably to roost. An extremely difficult bird to observe, being shy and very wary. Birds freeze in the foliage when approached, before exploding out of the canopy screeching loudly. Readily attracted to trees with small fruits. Active and noisy at night often flying around at height screeching continuously. Very few captive birds were seen in 1996, although this species was formerly caught in large numbers on Buton (Forshaw, 1989).

A very elusive bird with only 3 sightings during the 1996 survey. All birds seen were in mature secondary forest with numerous large trees. One bird was perched in the canopy of a large bare tree, where it remained for over 10 minutes.

A frustratingly difficult species to observe, which keeps to dense forest cover where it is almost impossible to see. Common and widespread in all forest habitats, including fairly degraded forest patches. The haunting call of this species is one of the commonest sounds on the island (in all suitable habitats); birds calling mostly at dawn and dusk, but also during the night. The few birds observed all had black bills. In 1995 it was reported that the Common Koel E. scolopacea was also present on Buton (Viney, 1995), but there is no evidence to support this claim.

A striking large and clumsy bird, often seen crashing through the foliage of the mid-storey. Inhabits woodland and forest where individuals search for large insects and small animals. Individuals have a habit of remaining motionless in the foliage while peering around slowly looking for prey. Almost always associated with groups of Macaques - 39 birds counted following one troop. Observed nest building in October - nest was situated inside a small mango tree. One bird was observed 'flycatching' after heavy rain in June - the bird repeatedly snatching termites from the air before crashing to the ground in a heap. Other birds have been observed catching large crickets in the foliage.

The call of this bird is characteristic of nearly all forested and wooded areas of Buton. The Bay Coucal occurs throughout the island, with records from 80% of squares surveyed during 1996. A skulking species which creeps around in dense thickets of vines and foliage, and is more often heard than seen. Especially vocal at dawn and dusk, although birds also frequently call at night. Regularly follows groups of Macaques, and frequently joins bird parties. After heavy rain has been observed catching termites from the ground, or snatching flying termites from the air.

Uncommon and elusive, although probably more widespread than records suggest. A bird seen clearly on the 6th of November, quartering low over short grassland on Snake Island, is the only definite sighting of this species during 1996. A second bird was heard in the hill forest above Maligano - the call being a typical single drawn-out barn owl screech, repeated at infrequent intervals. Appears able to tolerate a wide range of habitats from dense forest to open scrubby grassland and coconut plantations.

A common and widespread little owl which occurs throughout the island, wherever there are areas of forest or scattered trees. Able to adapt to well-developed plantations of cashew-nuts and to trees around human habitation. A tame and easily approached bird which is not readily disturbed by spot lights - birds continuing to call even when spot-lit. Probably increasing in numbers due to forest clearance and the creation of more favourable habitat.

Only one record from a well-wooded river valley in south Buton; Square 72. The bird was surprised while roosting in a small cave in an area of old secondary forest. No other birds have been encountered and the call has not been recognised. On mainland Sulawesi this Hawk-Owl is said to inhabit more open habitat than N. ochracea and is consequently increasing in numbers. Unidentified owl calls heard around Buton may represent this species.

Two birds observed in heavily degraded forest next to Lake Togomotonu are the only records of this species made by Operation Wallacea - Buton is included by White and Bruce (1986) as a location for this species, but no further details are given. Records from mainland Sulawesi indicate that this species inhabits areas of dense forest, but this has not yet been established on Buton. Calls heard at night in dense forest above La Bundo-Bundo have been tentatively attributed to this species.

See Chapter 4 for details.

There are only three records of this beautiful kingfisher from widely scattered locations on Buton. All records were from areas of mature secondary forest with little undergrowth. An unobtrusive, solitary, kingfisher which is probably uncommon throughout Buton in remaining areas of dense rainforest. Threatened by forest clearance on Buton.

A locally common kingfisher along less disturbed stretches of coast. Prefers