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THE DRIVING FORCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF A SHIFT FROM REEF TO PELAGIC FISHING PRACTISES IN SAMPELA, SOUTHEAST SULAWESI

by 

Timothy Glyn Burns 

Thesis submitted to the University of Plymouth

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

 

MSc Coastal and Ocean Policy University of Plymouth

Faculty of Science

in collaboration with

Operation Wallacea, Lincolnshire, UK 

 

September 2002

 

This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that no quotation from the thesis and no information derived from it may be published without the authors prior written consent.

Abstract

 

The Bajo fishing village of Sampela is situated within the Wakatobi National Park in Southeast Sulawesi.  The coral reef environment around Sampela is perceived to be under pressure from increasing levels of fishing effort, primarily resulting from population growth.  Operation Wallacea (an NGO based in the area) is working with the local community to form a stakeholding committee to manage the coastal area.  In the last five years motorboats have become accessible to fishers in Sampela and this has seen a rise in the numbers of fishers using motorboats to fish for tuna further out to sea.  Many of these fishers were formally reef fishers and so this technique is encouraged by Operation Wallacea, as it may help to reduce fishing pressure on local reefs.  This study aimed to investigate if economic returns were driving this shift from reef to pelagic fishing and to examine the environmental impacts of each fishery.  Sampling took place for six weeks between June and July 2002.  Reef and pelagic fishery surveys recorded the techniques, time spent fishing, catch weights, fish identification and fork lengths amongst other details.  Market surveys were conducted to calculate the price kg-1 of fish at the main fish market in the area.  A daily catch record was also kept for the tuna bought by Operation Wallacea on Hoga.  Interviews with reef and pelagic fishers were carried out to examine economic costs, perceptions on fish stocks and other relevant social factors.  The catch per unit effort (CPUE) was significantly greater for pelagic fishers than reef line fishers, however there was no difference between the CPUE of pelagic fishers and net fishers.  The price kg-1 was higher for tuna than reef fish in the main local market and the price paid by Operation Wallacea for tuna was double the local market price.  Economic costs, because of high fuel prices, are much greater for pelagic fishers than reef fishers.  The mean economic return of pelagic fishing is higher than all reef fishing techniques, however there was no significant difference between pelagic and net economic returns because of the large variation in catch weight of pelagic fishers.  Pelagic fishing is more lucrative than many reef fishing techniques and the number of fishers involved will probably increase in the future.  Fishers from both fisheries perceived fish stocks had declined and large proportions of reef fish and tuna harvested were immature.  These results suggest fish stocks of both fisheries may be under pressure from high fishing effort and encouraging pelagic fishing may not be an environmentally acceptable alternative to reef fishing in the region.  The priorities for fishery management are discussed.
List of Contents:

 

Number

Section

Page

1

Introduction

1

1.1

Coral reef fisheries, the Bajau and Sampela

1

1.2

Aims

1

1.3

Chapter Outline

3

2

Background

4

2.1

Current fishery status

4

2.2

Coral reef fisheries

4

2.3

Indonesia

6

2.4

The Bajau

8

2.5

The Wakatobi National Park

9

2.6

Sampela

12

2.7

The Sampela reef fishery

14

2.8

The Sampela pelagic fishery

17

2.9

Markets used by Sampelan fishers

18

3

Methods

20

3.1

Fishery surveys

20

3.2

Market surveys

24

3.3

Daily fisher income survey and interviews

24

3.4

Statistical methods and data analysis

26

4

Results

28

4.1

Catch and effort

28

4.2

Market destinations

34

4.3

Sampoawatu and Buranga economic data

35

4.4

Hoga

36

4.5

Catch prices

38

4.6

Economic expenditure

39

4.7

Economic returns

40

4.8

Environmental implications

41

4.9

Fisher responses

48

5

Interpretation

50

5.1

Catch and effort

50

5.2

Market destinations

53

5.3

Sampoawatu and Buranga economic data

54

5.4

Hoga

54

5.5

Catch prices

54

5.6

Economic expenditures

55

5.7

Economic returns

55

5.8

Environmental implications

56

5.9

Fisher responses

57

6

Discussion

59

6.1

The Sampela pelagic fishery

59

6.2

Tuna stocks in the Western Pacific Ocean

60

6.3

The Sampela reef fishery

62

6.4

Future management of fisheries in Sampela

63

7

Conclusion

65

7.1

Concluding remarks

65

7.2

Suggestions for further study

65

8

Appendices

66

9

References

70

 

 

 


Figure Contents:

Figure

Title

Page

2.31

Map of Indonesia and Sulawesi

6

2.51

The zoning scheme in the Wakatobi National Park

10

2.52

Map of Kaledupa and Hoga showing the Operation Wallacea research centres and the designated no fishing zone

11

2.53

Map of the proposed Stakeholder Zone

12

2.61

Sampela

13

2.71

Fisher line fishing from a Kalokoe

14

2.72

Active net fishing

15

2.81

Sampelan motorboat returning from a tuna fishing trip

17

2.91

Middle-women selling fish at Sampoawatu Market

19

3.11

Map of the five areas within the Stakeholder Zone

21

3.13

Surveying a net catch during an evening reef fisheries survey

23

4.11

Number of fishing trips per day for reef and pelagic fishers

28

4.12

Fishing trip time for different fishing techniques and fisheries

29

4.13

Catch weight and CPUE for different fishing techniques

30

4.14

Catch weight and CPUE for different fisheries

30

4.15

Catch weight and CPUE for different reef habitats

31

4.16

Catch weight and CPUE for different reef areas

31

4.17

GPS positions of morning reef fishers

32

4.18

Catch weight and CPUE for pelagic fishers using rompong and not using rompong

33

4.21a,b

The relative importance of different markets to pelagic and reef fishers

34

4.31

Fish price per kilogram at Sampoawatu market for different fishing techniques

35

4.32

Total price received at Sampoawatu market for different fishing techniques

35

4.41

The difference in tuna price between Sampoawatu and Hoga

36

4.42

The number of people and tuna bought on Hoga Island each day

37

4.51

Catch prices received for different fishing techniques

38

4.52

Earnings received per trip for different fishing techniques

38

4.61

Boat and engine costs to pelagic fishers

40

4.71

The economic returns received for different fishing techniques

40

4.81

Number of species caught by different reef fishing techniques

41

4.82

Opinions of reef and pelagic fishers to changes in reef and pelagic fish stock sizes

41

4.83

Length frequency distribution for Katsuwonus pelamis and Thunnus obesus

42

4.84

Length frequency distributions for reef fish

44

4.85

Fork lengths of reef fish caught in different areas

47

4.86

Fork lengths of tuna caught with rompong and without rompong

47

4.91

Pelagic fisher views on pelagic fisher numbers in the future

48

4.92

Do reef fishers desire to become pelagic fishers in the future

48

4.93

Alternative fishing techniques practised by pelagic fishers

49

5.21

Similarity dendrogram for market destinations

53

 


Table Contents

 

Table

Title

Page

2.31

Figures giving a socio-economic background to Indonesia

7

4.11

Fishery summary statistics

28

4.41

Changes in tuna variables as the number of people living on Hoga increased

37

4.61

Economic expenditures of different fishing techniques

39

4.81

Lengths and maturity figures for tuna surveyed in Sampela and Hoga

43

4.82

Lengths and maturity figures for reef fish

46

6.1

The CPUE for different reef fishing techniques in different locations

62


Acknowledgements

 

I would like to thank Operation Wallacea for the opportunity to live and research in Sampela.  I also would like to thank Duncan May, John Rubin and Chris Majors for their supervision and support during this project, and Konduro, Tikung and Andar for their translation, help and enthusiasm.  Thanks to all the volunteers that helped with fisheries surveying including Wai, Louise, Seb, Dom, Nick, Mandy, Chancy, Caroline and Vicky.  Finally, thanks to the people of Sampela.

1. Introduction

 

1.1 Coral reef fisheries, the Bajau and Sampela

 

Coral reefs support many small-scale fisheries in communities within tropical countries.  They produce high levels of productivity, however many are now under pressure from high levels of fishing effort that can result in environmental changes to target species and reef ecosystems (Jennings & Lock, 1996).  The Bajau are a sea-based fishing culture that populate areas of Southeast Asia.  They were once nomadic, however many Bajau have now in villages, such as Sampela in the Tukanbesi Islands, Southeast Sulawesi.

 

It is perceived that many of the coral reefs surrounding the village of Sampela are under pressure from fishing.  This is primarily due to an increase in fishing effort resulting from population growth in Sampela, which is traditionally reliant upon the sea and its resources.  Since the availability of motorised fishing vessels in Sampela, fishermen have begun to fish further out to sea in deeper water for pelagic fish species, such as tuna.  This shift may be reducing the pressure upon coral reefs in the area as technology and efficiency increase in many fishing techniques.  The reasons behind this shift will be investigated during this study by comparing the economic returns of each fishery.  The environmental implications or benefits will also be examined for each fishery, such as the proportion of immature fish caught.  Policy priorities for future management of fisheries in Sampela will be suggested in the discussion.

 

1.2 Aims

 

The central hypotheses of this study are to:

 

1.      Assess if the shift from reef fishing techniques to pelagic fishing is primarily occurring due to economic returns gained by the fisher

2.      Assess if this shift is beneficial to the marine environment

 

To answer these hypotheses the following will be attempted:

 

To compare the pelagic and reef fisheries of Sampela, including:

-         catch weight and fishing trip time to calculate catch per unit effort (CPUE)

-         species selectivity of different fishing techniques

-         catches from different locations and habitats

-         proportion of mature fish caught

 

To compare the economic returns of different reef fishing techniques and pelagic line fishers by calculating the:

-         Price per kilogram of reef and pelagic fish sold in Sampoawatu, Buranga and Hoga

-         Catch prices received for fishers practising different fishing techniques

-         Economic fishing costs, including fuel, gear replacement and fishing agreements for each fishing technique

-         Economic returns from selling the catch in Sampoawatu, Buranga and Hoga fish markets after removing the economic costs associated with each fishing technique

 

To examine relevant social factors associated with each fishery including:

-         reasons and desires behind choices of fishers.

-         perceptions of fishers to their fisheries and the future

 


1.3 Chapter Outline

 

Chapter

Summary

2. Background

A detailed background is given to the study including: coral reef fisheries, Indonesia, the Bajau, the Wakatobi National Park, Operation Wallacea, Sampela, the stakeholder zone, and the fisheries practised and markets used by fishers in Sampela.

3. Methods

The methods used during the study are presented including fishery and catch surveys, market surveys, fisher income surveys and interviews.  The methods of statistical analysis used to examine the data are also given.

4. Results

This section presents the results found during the study graphically, and in tabular form when required.  The results shown are then briefly described.

5. Interpretation

The results presented in the previous chapter are interpreted and statistical analysis is provided.  This section brings together the results discussing possible meanings behind each finding.

6. Discussion

The important aspects of the study are discussed and related to the findings of previous investigations from the region and further afield.

7. Conclusions

The main conclusions from this work are summarised and suggestions for further research and management are made.

8. Appendices

The appendices contain the data sheets used to collect data from each survey and a copy of the interview questions for reef and pelagic fishers.


2. Background

 

2.1 Current Fishery Status

 

Fisheries are often given the characterisation of being in crisis and many stocks are currently fished at maximum sustainable levels with one in three overfished and being depleted (McGoodwin, 2001).  Over-capacity is a major factor contributing to overexploitation and many fisheries across the world must be subsidised to cover costs.  Other factors contributing to overexploitation include poor knowledge of science, management failures, a lack of data and statistics, the lack of institutions designed to involve stakeholders in the management process and a lack of long term planning in policy at local, national, regional and international levels (Mace, 1996). 

 

Small-scale fisheries, many of which are found in tropical regions, contain 95% of the world’s fishers and maintain the livelihoods of over 200 million people (McGoodwin, 2001).  Small-scale fishers provide approximately half of the world’s fish catch that is consumed by people (McGoodwin, 2001), reflecting their importance to human society.  Small-scale fisheries in tropical regions are often dependent upon coral reef ecosystems as they are easily accessible without need for an engine and provide a high level of productivity in excess of 5 t km-2 year-1 (Dalzell, 1996).

 

2.2 Coral reef fisheries

 

Coral reefs often provide many humans with a resource that entire communities depend upon.  Small-scale fisheries in the past harvested fish typically for subsistence purposes and local markets, but now increasingly small-scale fisheries target high value species for national commercial markets.  Reef fishers use a variety of fishing gear, including lines, spears, nets and traps (Dalzell, 1996).  Due to the variety of fish present in coral reef ecosystems (Sale, 1991) many of these fishing techniques catch a variety of species and are therefore known as multispecies fisheries.  Productivity in reef ecosystems due to nutrient recycling is very high (Ebeling & Hixon, 1991) and fishing may yield high catch rates, for example yields have been recorded as high as 40 tons km-2year-1 (Dalzell, 1996).  However in many communities high levels of fishing pressure is put upon small-scale fishery resources from market demands, human population growth, development and marine pollution.  This has often resulted in overfishing of resources (Amar et al 1996; Jennings et al, 1995; McClanahan, et al, 1999 and Sunderlin, 1994) creating direct impacts to the target species, such as changes in abundance, population structure and distribution, and indirect impacts to reef ecosystems (Jennings & Lock, 1996).  In south-west Madagascar a variety of factors including increased population growth has lead to fishers using gill nets with decreasing mesh sizes, smaller and more hooks and visiting fishing grounds further out to sea (Laroche et al, 1997).

 

A need has developed in many regions to reduce fishing effort upon reef ecosystems to protect fish stocks and the livelihoods of communities that depend upon them (Sunderlin, 1994; McClanahan et al, 1999).  This may be by encouraging other sources of income, such as aquaculture and tourism or new fishing methods for species not traditionally targeted.  However these options are not always possible and family planning, environmental education, fishery restrictions and marine protected areas should also be considered (Salm et al, 2000).  One possible solution to lower fishing pressure on coral reefs is to target pelagic fish.  This is increasingly occurring, as motorised vessels are becoming accessible allowing more distant fishing grounds to be reached faster and increasing safety for fishermen fishing further out to sea.  Many small-scale fisheries are also beginning to use Fish Aggregation Devices (FADs) to attract pelagic fish such as in Mauritius and Malaysia (Roullot et al, 1988; Ibrahim et al, 1990).

 

Community based co-operative management or co-management is becoming recognised by more and more countries as being the best way to manage ecosystems (Brown, 1996; King & Faasili, 1999).  Community based co-management involves the co-operation of governments, and the local community and stakeholders to manage and have responsibility for the resource.  It is becoming more and more popular by the failures seen in the past from centrally controlled management strategies (Brown, 1996).  Often NGOs may be involved in the process to act as a catalyst by giving advice, motivation and education to local communities (Ahmed et al 1997).  Community based co-management is especially important to many coral reef fisheries due to the lack of financial and institutional support that can be given by governments to local communities in developing countries.  Many communities have also implemented traditional forms of management without the need for outside help through cultural knowledge (Amarasinghe & de Silva, 1999).

 

2.3 Indonesia

 

Figure 2.31: Map of Indonesia and Sulawesi (World Bank Group, 2001):